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FEEDS AND FEEDING 
ABRIDGED 



THE ESSENTIALS OF THE FEEDING, 
CARE, AND MANAGEMENT OF FARM 
ANIMALS, INCLUDING POULTRY 

Adapted and Coxdensed from FEEDS AND FEEDING 

(ElGHTKEKTH EdITIOn) 



BY 

W. A. HENRY, D.Sc, D. Agr. 

EMKEiTUS PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE, 
AND FORMERLY DEAN OF COLLEGE' OF AGRICULTURE 
AND DIRECTOR OF THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 

AND 

F. B. MORRISON, B. S. 

ASSISTANT DIRECTOR 

OF THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 

AND PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, 

LiMVEKSITi OF WISCONSIN 



TRIED EDITION 



MADISON, WISCONSIN 
THE HENRY-MORRISON COMPANY 

1921 



6^'' 



V^ 



^<\>^ 



Cori-RnuiT, IC'JI 

BV 

THE HEiNRY MORRISON COMPANY 

.4// rii/lils riKcn-fd 

Set lip and electrotyped. Published March, 1917. 

Reprinted September, 1917; March, 1919: August, 1920. 

Revised and reprinted October, 1920. 

Second revision printed August, 1921 



/ 



Uli)c (Cnllrgiatr l^veea 

GEORGE BANTA PUBLISHING COMPANY 

MENASHA, WIS. 



SEP 3071 §^CU624604 



n^^ I 



PREFACE 

~ '* Feeds and Feeding"," first published in March, 1898, was received 
Owitli widespread favor by practical stockmen and by the teachers and 
students of animal husbandry in this countr}'. Since this date seven- 
leen editions have come from the press, and the book has been twice 
entirely rewritten to include new and important ilata. Many stock- 
men rely upon "Feeds and Feeding" as the guide in their feeding 
o))erations, and it is the standard text on stock feeding in j)raetieall\' 
all llie agricultural colleges in this country. As "Feeds and Feed- 
ing" covers the feeding and care of each class of live stock in a com- 
prehensive manner, it is of necessity a large book, containing much de- 
tailed information. 

With the rapid development of special agricultural courses in sec- 
ondary schools and of short courses in the agricultural colleges, a 
demand arose for a simplified and condensed edition of the work. 
In response to this demand "PVeds and Feeding, Abridged," was 
prepared in 1917 by the undersigned, with the editorial aid of Pro- 
fessor AV. A. Henry. The book was based chiefly upon "Feeds and 
Feeding" but the sub.ject matter was so condensed and simplitied 
as to adapt it for use in brief courses in stock feeding. Omitting 
topics of purely scientific interest, the most essential facts concern- 
ing animal nutrition and the practical feeding, care, and manage- 
ment of farm animals were presented in the simplest possil)le terms. 
The immediate and widespread demand for the book has been a 
pleasant surprise, five printings having already been required. 
This edition has been carefully revised to meet the changed condi- 
tions since the World War and to include important new informa- 
tion on the feeding of live stock. 

In most brief books on stock feeding the care and management of 
stock receive scant attention, but in "Feeds and Feeding, Abridged" 
these subjects, which are of the utmost practical importance, are fully 
treated. To aid the teacher and the student, each chapter closes with 
questions covering the subject matter, and 116 engravings illustrate 
some of the most important points. Since the subject of poultry 
feeding is commonly included in live stock feeding: in secondary 
schools, chapters have been added on the feeding and care of poultry. 
Altho thus covering a larger field, "Feeds and Feedinsr, Abridged" 
contains but half as much text matter as "Feeds and Feeding." 



ye 



PREFACE 

Part I presents the most important general principles governing 
the rational feeding and care of farm animals. The various feeding 
standards arc hi'letly discussed, including tiic new Morrison (Modi- 
fied Wolft'-Lehmann) Standards, which are based upon the recent 
findings of the scientists in this and other countries. A chapter 
on "Economy in Feeding Live Stock" points out some of the 
economic principles which must be considered in the feeding and care 
of live stock to realize the largest profits. 

Part II disc\isscs all the important feeding stutt's used in this 
country, rather than merely the feeds available in any particular 
district. This permits the teacher to give the most attention to the 
feeds of local importance, perhaps omitting others entirely. Finally, 
the cha|)t('r on "Mainirial Value of Feeding Stulfs," points out the 
vital rehition of animal husbandry to the economical maintciumce of 
soil fertility. 

Part III takes up the practical feeding, care, and management of 
each class of live stock and summarizes the special value of the impor- 
tant feeds for each class of animals. ]\Iost of the tables giving sum- 
maries of the important feeding trials at the Experiment Stations, 
contained in the corresponding part of "Feeds and Feeding," are 
omitted in the abridged edition. Instead, the authors have presented 
in simple terms their conclusions on the value of the different feeding 
stuffs and of the various methods of feeding and caring for stock. 

The Apj)endix Tables, condensed from the much more extensive 
Appendix Tables of "Feeds and Feeding," show the com|>osition and 
tlie digestible nutrients ami the fertilizing constituents in the most 
important American feeds. As these tables are specially i)rotecled l)y 
copyright, they can be given in no otlier texts on stock feeding. 

Especitd thanks are due the following for assistance: jNIrs. Elsie 
Bullard-Moi'rison, who has rendered invaluable aid on every page 
of the book; Prof. J. A. James of the Department of Agricultural 
Education, University of Wisconsin, and formerly Superintendent of 
the Racine County, Wisconsin, School of Agriculture, who has made 
valuable suggestions in adapting the book to the needs of secondary 
schools; and Prof. J. G. Halpin of the University of AVisconsin, who 
greatly aided in preparing the chapters on poultry. . Credit is given 
in each instance to those loaning illustrations for use in the book. 

F. B. Morrison 
Madison, Wis. 
August, .1921. 



CONTENTS 

Page 

Introduction. Live Stock and Profitable Farming 1 

Part I. — Plant Growth and Animal Nutrition 
Chapter 

I. How Plants Grow and Build Food for Animals 5 

II. The Animal Body — Digestion — Metabolism 18 

III. Measuring" the Usefulness of Feeds. 34 

IV. ]\Iaintaining" Farm Animals 50 

V. Growth and Fattening 63 

VI. Production of Work, Milk, and Wool 77 

VII. Feeding Standards — Calculating Ralioiis 84 

VII I. Economy in Feeding Live Stock 100 

Part II. — Feeding Stuffs 

IX. Leading Cereals and their By-products 117 

X. Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds, and tlieir 

By-products 133 

XL Miscellaneous Concentrates — Feeding SlulTs Control — Con- 

dimental Foods 140 

XII. Indian Corn and the Sorghums for Forage 157 

Xlll. The Smaller Grasses — Straw — llay-iiiakiiig 1(57 

Xl\'. Legumiiuius Plants for Forage ISO 

XV. Koots, Tubeis, and Miscellaneous Foi-agcs 193 

X\'L Silage— Soilage 202 

XVII. ]\[anurial Value of Feeding Slull's 212 

Part III. — Feeding Farm Animals 

XVIII. Feeding and Care of Horses 221 

XIX. Feeds for Horses 230 

XX. Feeding and Care of Dairy Cows 247 

XXI. Feeds for the Dairy Cow 207 

XXII. liaising Dairy Cattle 280 

XXIII. Feeding and Care of Beef Cattle 290 

XXIV. Feeds for Beef Cattle 308 

XXV. Feeding and Care of Sheep 322 

XXVI. Feeds for Sheep 330 

XXVII. Feeding and Care of Swine 347 



CONTENTS 



Chapter Pack 

XXVIII. Feeds for Swine 361 

XXIX. Feeding- and Care of Poulti-y 377 

XXX. Feeds for Poultry 396 

Appendix 

Table I. Average Composition of American Feeding Stuffs 403 

Table TI. Average Digestibility of Important Feeding- Stuffs 411 

Table III. Average Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents 

in American Feeding- Stuffs 413 

Table IV. Wolff-Lebmann Feeding Standards for Farm Animals. .. 423 
Table V. Modified Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Standards for Farm 

Animals 4'2~) 

Tal)le VT. The Feed-Unit System— Amount of Different Feeds Re- 
quired to Equal One Feed Unit 428 

Table VII. Armsby's Net Energy Values for Feeding Stuffs 421) 

Table VIIT. Armsby's Feeding Standards for Farm Animals 430 

Table IX. Weight of Various Concentrates 432 

Index 433 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

INTRODUCTION 

LIVE STOCK AND PROFITABLE FARMING 

Farm animals aro really living' factories that are enntiniinusl}- con- 
verting their feed into products useful to man. A most important 
tact is that a large part of the feed thus made useful is of such char- 
acter that it cannot be directly utilized by humans. Among the 
products yielded by animals are such articles of human diet as meat, 
milk, and eggs, materials like wool, mohair, and hides, which meet 
other needs of man, and, of greater aggregate value than any one of 
these, the work performed by draft animals. The great importaiice 
of animal husbandry in the United States is shown by the fact that 
on January 1, 1921, the horses, mules, cattle, sheep, and swine had a 
total value of over $6,200,000,000. 

As the population of our country increases, most naturally a smaller 
portion of the crops raised can be fed to animals and more will be con- 
sumed directly by humans. This change nnist come with the in- 
creased demand for human food, since even high-producing animals 
can convert but a part of their food into forms edible for man. 
However, until the World War caused a temporary increase in the 
iHunber of beef cattle and swine in this country, due to the press- 
ing need for more animal products for export, the number of catth' 
and sheep had actually been decreasing and the number of swine 
had increased but slightly. This means that animal products can 
not long hold their present important place in our diet unless Ameri- 
can farmers come to appreciate the advantages of stock farming 
and better understand the principles and methods which are essential 
to its success. 

Live-stock farming and soil fertility. — With the high prices ruling, 
man}^ farmers are selling their crops for cash, rather than marketing 
at least a portion thru feeding them to live stock, and thereby practic- 
ing balanced agriculture. Too often they forget that each ton of 
grain sold removes from $8 to $10 worth of fertility from the soil, 
and that this gradual mining of their farms will result in worn-out 
tields that must forever afterwards be fed with commercial fertilizers 
so as to produce fair crops. On the other hand, thru feeding a part 

1 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABKlDCiED 



of the crops to animals and caring properly for the resulting manure, 
most of the fertility may be retained on the farm, and the need of 
commercial fertilizers long delayed. Where intensive stock farming 
is followed and milling by-products rich, in fertilizing constituents 
are purchased and fed on the farm, the land may grow richer each 
year, with little need for commercial fertilizers. 

Consumption of feed otherwise wasted. — In exclusive grain farm- 
ing, tliere is no successful way of utilizing such materials as straw and 
corn stover, and, being regarded as waste, they are often burned 




Live Stock Utilize Feed Otherwise Wasted 



In grain farminji;, tlie corn stalks are allowed to waste away in the fields after 
the ears are harvested, but in live-stoek farming the corn stover is profitably fed 
to the stock. 

or otherwise disposed of without regard to the fertility lost to the soil. 
In stock husbandry, all these by-products may be economically used 
for. feed or bedding. By this means much forage which cannot be 
eaten b}^ humans and would otherwise be wasted, is refined thru the 
agency of animals into forms suitable for man, while most of the 
fertility goes back in the manure to nourish the fields. Immense 
quantities of by-products result from the manufacture of flour, break- 
fast foods, vegetable oils, etc. Tho these are all unsuited for human 
food, they are valuable feeds for stock. As our population increases, 



INTRODUCTION 3 

such by-products must to an ever increasing degree be used to sustain 
farm animals. 

Utilization of land unsuited for tillage. — In those sections of our 
country which are so rough or stony that the land cannot be culti- 
vated, cattle and sheep may be profitably kept. Also, in the great 
semi-arid regions of the West where neither dry farming nor irriga- 
tion are practicable, stock thrive on the scanty but extremely nutri- 
tious grasses and other vegetation. Cut-over timber districts may 
likewise be profitably grazed before they are finally brought under 
tillage. 

Distribution of labor. — In grain farming, the demand for labor is 
irregular and during rush seasons, such as harvesting, help is scarce 
and high priced. On the other hand, live-stock farming gives em- 
ployment thruout the year. Moreover, in winter, when animals re- 
quire the most care and attention, the farmer is the least busy with 
other farm work. By offering steady employment, the stock farmer 
is usually able to secure more efficient and trustworthy men than the 
grain farmer. 

Intelligent and progressive agriculture. — The whole world over, 
the most enlightened and progressive agricultural districts are found 
where live-stock farming is practiced. This is due to several reasons : 
The live-stock farmer can not live from hand to mouth, but must lay 
in a store of feed for his animals thruout the winter months. This 
same care and foresitiht are then carried into his other activities. 
Under some systems of agriculture the returns from the year's crops 
all come in at once, which makes for extravagance and idleness, with 
resultant poverty until another crop is harvested. On the other hand, 
under most systems of live-stock farming, income is secured several 
times during the year. 

The care and control of domestic animals, which are intelligent yet 
submissive to his will, tend to develop those instincts in man that make 
him kindly, self-reliant, and trustworthy. The good stockman grows 
proud of his sleek, well-bred animals and derives a satisfaction there- 
from not measured in money. With pride he may hand down to his 
sons his reputation as a breeder. He is also able to leave them fertile 
fields which he has built up rather than robbed, a heritage bequeathed 
by few grain farmers. 

Profitable live-stock farming. — In the early days, with land low in 
price, pasturage abundant, and feed and labor cheap, profit from live- 
stock farming was comparatively easy, even tho one knew little of 
the principles governing the feeding and care of stock. Conditions 
have now changed. The great western prairies no longer offer rich 
fields free for the taking, and hence thruout the country fertile land 



4 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

is now relativelj' high in price. While labor and feeding stuffs are 
much lower than under war-time conditions during the past few 
years, they are considerably higher than in early days. Therefore 
present times call for a more intelligent type of stock farming than 
has ruled in the past. Efficiency is especially necessary in making the 
difficult adjustments from the inflated war-time basis of costs and 
prices. In the long run, good profits will be realized in the future as 
in the past from stock farming, when the operations are planned with 
good judgment and with a thorough appreciation of the requirements 
of the various classes of animals for food and care. However, 
haphazard and unscientific animal husbandry should not and can not 
return a profit under present day conditions. 

In the pioneer days of our country the feeds commonly used for live 
stock were restricted to the grains and forages grown on the farm. 
Knowledge of the value of these farm-grown products is not now suf- 
ficient for intelligent feeding. The problem is complicated by the 
host of by-products resulting from the manufacture of articles of 
human food. Many of these are valuable and economical supple- 
ments to the feeds raised on the farm. However, such products vary 
considerably in price and even more markedly in nutritive value. 
Most economical feeding is therefore possible only when the relative 
value of these products compared with each other and with the farm- 
grown crops is clearly understood. 

In learning of feeds and of feeding we must first consider the plant 
substances which provide the nourishment for farm animals and study 
liow they are built up in the living plant. Next we should learn how 
the food consumed by animals is digested and utilized within the bod.y 
for the production of meat, milk, work, or wool, and should also study 
the requirements of each class of animals for food, water, shelter, and 
exercise. Only then are we in a position to understand the value and 
merits for each of the farm animals of the many different feeds, and 
finally to consider the principles of care and management, the con- 
stant observance of which is essential to the highest success in animal 
luisbandrv. 



Part I 

PLANT GROWTH AND ANIMAL 
NUTRITION 



CHAPTER I 
HOW PLANTS GROW AND BUILD FOOD FOR ANIMALS 

I. Plant Growth 

All food for animals, with the exception of air, water, and salt, is 
supplied either directly or indirectly by plants. To understand the 
feeding of live stock, one should therefore know how plants grow and 
build this food and of what it consists. 

The food of plants. — Both plants and animals are composed of a 
great many substances or compounds — yet all are made up of a rela- 
tively small number of chemical elements. Indeed, of the 80 or more 
elements known to the chemist, only 14 are commonly present in 
plants. Of these, at least 10 are absolutely necessary for plant growth. 
These are : carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, po- 
tassium, calcium, magnesium and iron. Sodium, silicon, chlorine, 
and manganese are also usually found in plants and may be essential 
to growth. lodin also is present in some plants. Except in the two 
instances which will be noted later, plants cannot use for food the un- 
combined elements, such as metallic iron or carbon in the form of 
charcoal, but they are nourished by water, carbon dioxid (carbonic 
acid gas), and mineral salts — all of which are compounds containing 
the elements in chemical combination, 

AVater (composed of hydrogen and oxygen) serves a double pur- 
pose in plants. Some of the water taken up by the plant roots is used 
as food, while the rest serves as the carrier of plant food. Only when 
it is dissolved in water can plant food be taken from the soil by the 
roots or be carried from one part of the plant to another. A surpris- 
ing amount of water is needed by plants during growth. For every 
pound of dry matter which they manufacture, from 200 to 500 lbs. of 
water is drawn from the soil in humid climates, and as high as 1,800 
lbs. in arid districts. 

Next to water, carbon dioxid, or carbonic acid gas (composed of car- 
bon and oxygen), is the great food material of plants. This is ob- 

5 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



tained from the air, ten thousand parts of which contain 3 to 4 parts 
by volume of carbon dioxid. The air supplies carbon dioxid to the 
cells of the plant thru the innumerable minute openings on the 
under surface of the leaves. In producing a 15-ton crop of green 
corn over 5 tons of carbon dioxid are required, to obtain which the 
plants must take in over 12,000 tons of air. Yet the supply of carbon 
dioxid is never exhausted, for it is being continuously returned to the 
air thru the breathing out of carbon dioxid by animals and the decay 
of plant and animal matter. 

Nitrogen abounds in the living, growing parts of plants. Altho 
about three-fourths of the air is nitrogen gas, plants in general cannot 
use the free nitrogen of the air, but obtain their supply from nitrogen- 
containing compounds in the soil, chiefly the nitrates. Bacteria living 



U/afer 

[ffycfrogen a net otyge. 




. Carbon c/ioxid 

[Corbon one/ oitug-e/i) 



/?7/nero/ mo/^er 
Su/phur Ca/c/um 
Phosphorus mag/7e.5/um 
Potasd/um lror7 



OToier 

(/fye/ro^en and Onuqen) 

fi/Zrates 



Fig. 2. — Where Plants Secure Their Food 

Plants obtain carbon dioxid from tlie air, and water, mineral matter, and 
nitrates from the soil. Legumes are able to use indirectly the nitrogen of the 
air. Plants give oft' uater and free oxygen gas to the air thru their leaves. 

in nodules on the roots of legumes, such as clover, alfalfa, and peas, 
are able to take nitrogen gas from the air and pass it on in combined 
form to the host plants. Thus, the legumes are able indirectly, thru 
the aid of these bacteria, to use the nitrogen of the air as food. 

Oxygen, which is a part of all plant compounds, is obtained largely 
from water and carbon dioxid, and not from the free oxygen gas of 



now PLANTS GKOW 



the air. Some oxygen gas is, however, being continuously absorbed by 
all green plants and is necessary for their growth. 

The mineral substances, such as phosphates, potash, and lime, which 
are needed by the plants, are taken from the soil thru the roots. 

Plant building. — The carbon dioxid, the water, and the nitrates and 
other mineral compounds are carried in the sap currents to the living, 
green-colored protoplasm of the leaf cells. Here these relatively 
simple compounds are built into the much more complex plant sub- 





Fig. 3 

Fig. 3. — Plant Cells, IMagnified 350 Times 

A, Cell wall; b, nucleus, or life center of cell; c, strands of protoplasm; d, 
spaces filled with cell saj); e, chlorophyll bodies. (After Strassburger.) 

Fig. 4. — Section of Leaf, Magnified 400 Times 

A, Stoma, or openings on under side of leaf thru which air enters; b, chloro- 
phyll bodies in leaf cells; d, lower epidermal cells of leaf; e, upper epidermal 
cells of leaf. (After Strassburger.) 

stances. In some mysterious manner chlorophyll, the green coloring 
matter of the leaves, breaks down carbon dioxid and water under the 
influence of light, and rearranges the carbon, hydrogen, and some of 
the oxygen into relatively simple plant compounds. The rest of the 
oxygen is given back to the air as free oxygen gas. It is not definitely 
known whether the first product so formed is starch, sugar, or some 
simpler compound. From the compounds first made the plant then 
builds more complex substances, some of which contain mineral matter 
obtained from the soil- Both sugar and starch contain much energy. 



8 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

while carbon dioxid and water contain but little. Therefore, to make 
sugar and starch from these two energy-poor substances the plant 
must secure energy from some outside source. This it obtains from 
the sun, as light, which is absorbed by the leaves. 

The carbohydrates.— Sugar and starch, together with the related 
products, the celluloses and pentosans, are called carbohydrates. This 
group of plant compounds makes up the major portion of all plant 
substance. The term carhohydrates means that these compounds are 
formed of the three elements, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the latter 
two being present in the proportion existing in water, the chemical 
formula for which is H.O. (This means that every molecule of water 
contains two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.) 

The molecular composition of the leading plant carbohydrates is as 
follows : 

Glucose 1 r* TT n 
Fruit sugar J ^"^^^^e 

Cane sugar ] p -rr n 
Malt sugar J" ^i^^^'^^" 

Starch 1 /r< tt /-, n 

Cellulose [ (CoH,,OJx 

Pentose C.-.H^oOg 

Pentosan (C^HsOJx 

The molecules in the bracketed groups are in reality far more com- 
plex than the formulas indicate, the actual molecule being many mul- 
tiples of the groups here given. 

All sugars, not only the simpler glucose and fruit sugar but also 
the more complex cane sugar and malt sugar, are soluble in the juices 
of the plant. They are thus the portable, carbohydrate building ma- 
terial of plants, which is carried in the sap to all their parts as 
needed. Some plants, as the beet and the sugar cane, store their re- 
serve food chiefly in the form of sugar. 

Starch is more complex in structure than the sugars and is in- 
soluble in water. It is the form in which most plants chiefly store 
their reserve food. This carbohydrate abounds in nearly all seeds, 
forming over 70 per ct. of the dry matter in corn and wheat grains. 
Often starch is stored in the underground parts of plants, as in the 
potato tuber, or in fruits, as in the apple. Since starch is insoluble 
in the sap, it must be changed into sugars by an enzyme or ferment 
when it is needed in other parts of the plant. (See Page 22.) 

Cellulose is the great structural substance of plants-, for the walls 



HOW PLANTS GROW 



9 



^ O 



o 



® § 



of all plant cells consist chiefly of this carbohydrate. Thus it forms 
almost the whole of the skeleton or framework of plants. It is built 
by the plant cells from the simpler carbohydrates — the starches and 
sugars. The thickness of the cell walls, and consequently the per^ 
centage of cellulose, varies greatly in different parts of plants, the 
walls being thick and resistant in the woody stems, and thin and 
delicate in the softer parts, such as the fruits and leaves. Especially 
in the woody parts of plants, the cell walls do not consist simply of 
pure cellulose, but of cellulose 
combined with other related 
carbohydrates, which are even 
tougher and more resistant. 
In analyzing plants the chem- 
ist includes cellulose and these 
other compounds under the 
term fiber. 

The pentoses and pentosans 
are carbohydrates with 5 atoms 
of carbon in the molecule, in 
place of 6 as in the sugars and 
starches. The pentoses corre- 
spond to sugars, and the pen- 
tosans to starch and cellulose. 
The pentosans are widely dis- 
tributed in plants, being found 
in largest amount in the more 
woody portions and in the 
outer portions of seeds. While 
corn irrain contains less than 6 per ct. of pentosans, straw and hay 
from the grasses usually contain over 20 per ct. 

Fats and oils. — Fats, which are solid at ordinary temperatures, and 
oils, which are li(iuid, are composed of the same elements as are the 
carbohydrates ; i. e., carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. In fats and oils, 
however, the proportion of carbon and hydrogen is greater. They 
therefore give off more heat on burning, one pound of fat producing 
about two and a quarter times as much heat as a pound of carbo- 
hydrates. Oils and fats most abound in the seeds of plants, the 
reserve food supply in peanuts and flax seed, for example, being 
largely in this form. 

Nitrog-enous compounds. — In the living plant cells sugar and 
starch, formed from carl)on dioxid and water thru the action of the 
sunlight, are united with nitrates and other salts gathered by the 
roots from the soil to form a new group of complex compounds called 





Fig. 5. — Starch Grains 

A, From corn grain; b, from wheat; c, 
from oats; d, from potato. (MagnifipcJ 
330 times.) 



10 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

crude proteins. In addition to carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, these 
compounds contain nitrogen, sulfur, and sometimes phosphorus. 
The nitrogenous compounds are the most complex of all plant eom- 
jiounds and are therefore the most difficult to study and classify. 
For example, the probable molecular composition of legumin, a pro- 
tein found in the seed of the field pea, is C718H1158O238N014S2. Due to 
this complexity, and also because of the great number of dififerent 
nitrogenous compounds found in plants, even after years of effort by 
able chemists our knowledge of the differences in composition and 
feeding value of these compounds is still limited. In discussions of 
feeding stuffs and stock feeding, the terms crude protein, protein, and 
amids are commonly used for designating the various classes of 
nitrogenous compounds. 

Crude protein includes all the nitrogenous compounds of the plant. 
The chemist finds that about 16 per ct. of the plant proteins is 
nitrogen. Accordingly, he multiplies the nitrogen found in a given 
plant substance by 6.25 (100 -^ 16 = 6.25) and calls the product crude 
protein. Crude protein embraces two great groups of nitrogenous 
plant compounds, proteins and amids. 

The amids may be termed the building stones of the protehis, for 
from them the plant constructs the more complex proteins, just as a 
wall is built from stones, and on decomposition the proteins are again 
broken down into these more simple substances. These compounds 
are the portable nitrogenous building compounds of the plant, for 
they are soluble in its juices and hence may be carried Avherever 
needed. Commonly included under the general term amids are com- 
pounds which the chemist calls amino acids, and others which he 
terms true amids. In this book, unless otherwise stated, amids will 
be used to denote both classes of substances. 

Proteins are the more complex forms of crude protein. They are 
not always soluble, and therefore in many cases not transportable, in 
the juices of the plant. The proteins form the basis of the proto- 
plasm, which is the life-holding part of all plants and animals, and 
so are essential to all life. 

The complexity of the proteins is evident from the fact that 18 
iliti'erent amino acids have already been identified which may enter 
into their composition. Just as the letters of the alphabet may be 
combined into innumerable words, so the possibility for the combina- 
tion of the amino acids into different proteins is almost limitless. 
Thus far, scores of different plant and animal proteins have been 
separated and examined by the chemists. Some of these, such as 
egg albumin, contain all the known amino acids, while otliers, as zein 
of corn and gliadin of wheat, lack one or more of them. As will be 



HOW PLANTS GROW 11 

shown later, the iucpniplete proteins may liave a lower value for 
animal feeding? than those which are complete. 

During the growth of the plant, amids are constantly being formed 
in the living cells out of sugar or starch and the nitrates and other 
mineral salts. These amids are continually being carried to needed 
points and there changed into the proteins, and as a consequence do 
not usually accumulate in the plant. Just as starch and sugar are 
changed one into the other in the plant, so the proteins and amids 
may be changed one into the other as plant necessity may require. 
"When germination starts in a seed, an enzyme, or ferment, it contains 
acts on the insoluble proteins stored in and about the germ and 
changes them to soluble amids, so that the nitrogen may be trans- 
ferred to the newly forming parts of the plantlet. But little crude 
protein is found in the older, woody parts of plants, the greater por- 
tion always being concentrated at the points of growth; i.e., in tlie 
leaves, flowers, and seeds. 

Plants support animal life. — It is Nature's plan that plants shall 
use energy supplied by the sun in building inorganic matter taken 
from earth and air into organic compounds. In this process the sun 
energy employed becomes latent, or hidden. Animals can not directly 
secure from the sun the energy necessary for their life but must 
live on the organic compounds built by plants. After more or less 
change during digestion, these compounds are built into their body 
tissues or are broken down within their bodies to produce heat and 
energy. In the coal burning in the grate, there reappears the energy 
of the sun which was stored in the plants of ages ago. In a similar 
manner the energy received from the sun by plants during their 
growth is transformed into animal heat and energy. Plants are thus 
sun-power machines for furnishing food to support animal life. 

II. How THE Chemist Groups Plant Substances 

As we have seen, many different compounds are formed in plants, 
some of these being so complex that their exact structure has not yet 
been determined. In studying feeding stuffs it is desirable to group 
all plant compounds into a few classes, the amounts of which can be 
readily found by chemists. Accordingly, in analyzing plant materials 
and feeding stuffs, the following classes or groups of substances are 
commonly determined : water, ash or mineral matter, crude protein, 
fiber, nitrogen-free extract, and fat. The average percentages of 
these in typical feeds are shown in the following table, which is taken 
from Appendix Table I. The last column gives the number of 
analyses from which the average composition has been computed b>; 
the authors. 



12 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABKIDGEP 

Chemical composition of typical feeding stuffs, froM Appendix Tahlc I 





Inorganic matter 




Organic matte 


• 




Feeding stuff 


Crude 
protein 


Carbohydrates 


Fat 


No. of 
analyses 




Fiber 


N-free 
extract 




Water 


Ash 


Concentrates — 


Per ct. 


Ter ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 




I^piit corn 


10.5 

9.2 

10.2 

10.1 


1.5 
.3.5 
1.9 
6.3 


10.1 
12.4 
12.4 
16.0 


2.0 

10.9 

2.2 

9.5 


70.9 
59.6 
71.2 
53.7 


5.0 
4.4 
2.1 
4.4 


440 


Oats 


490 


Wheat 


858 


Wheat bran 


7,742 


Flax seed 


92 


4.3 


22.6 


7.1 


23.2 


33.7 


50 


liouf/hagcs^ 
















Tiniotliv hay 


\].(\ 


4.9 


6.2 


29.9 


45.0 


2.5 


221 


R(>d clover hav .... 


12.9 


7.1 


12.8 


25.5 


38.7 


3.1 


76 


17 


11.5 
68.4 


5.4 

2.8 


3.6 
4.1 


36.3 

8.7 


40.8 
14.8 


2.4 
1.2 


41 


]\entuckv l>lue<i;rass. 


32 


Corn silage 


73.7 


1.7 


2.1 


6.3 


15.4 


o.s 


121 


JMan^els 


90.6 


1.0 


1.4 


0.8 


6.1 


0.1 


.".8 







Water. — To determine the amount of water in a feed, the chemist 
weighs a sample before and after drying in an oven at a temperature 
of 212° F. for several hours. Volatile compounds, such as give 
various plants their characteristic odors, are driven off in addition to 
the water by heating, but their weight is insignificant. The table 
shows that even such "dry" feeds as corn, oats, wheat, and wheat 
bran contain 9 per ct. or more of water. Timothy and clover hay 
contain still more water, and such succulent feeds as green grass, 
corn silage, and mangels are largely water. 

Ash, or mineral matter. — The chemist next burns the sample and 
finds the weight of ash, or mineral matter, which is left. The table 
shows that 100 lbs. of corn or wheat contains less than 2 lbs. of ash. 
while oats, with their strawy hulls, and wheat bran, consisting of the 
outer coats of the wheat grain, carry more. The haj's and straws are 
higher in ash than such grains as corn and Mdieat, due to the accumu- 
lation of mineral matter in the leaves during growth, to soil washed 
upon the growing plants by rain, and to dust settling on the roughage 
before it is housed. Such foreign material is not really plant ash, 
but of necessity is reported as such. Owing to their high water con- 
tent, the ash in 100 lbs. of fresh grass, silage, and mangels is low. 

The ash and water of plants together constitute the so-called 
inorfjanir matter; the other compounds — crude protein, carbohydrates, 
and fal — are termed the organic matter. 

Crude protein. — The process of determining the nitrogenous con- 



HOW PLANTS GROW 13 

stituents of feeding* stuffs is too complicated for presentation here. 
Suffice it to say that the nitrogen content is found, and the result multi- 
plied by 6.25 to give tlie crude protein, since alwut 16 per ct. of plant 
protein is nitrogen (100-^16 = 6.25). From tlie tal)le we learn that 
100 lbs. of wheat bran contains 16.0 lbs. of crude protein, while the 
amount in wheat is 12.4 lbs. and in dent corn only 10.1 lbs. per 100 lbs. 
Red clover hay contains over twice as much crude protein as timothy 
hay. 

Fiber. — The woody portion of a feeding stuff is determined by 
boiling a sample successively in weak acid and alkali and washing 
out the dissolved matter. That which remains is termed fiber. Fiber, 
which consists mostly of cellulose, is less digestible and hence has a 
lower nutritive value than the other nutrients of feeding stuffs. 
Corn contains but 2.0 and wheat only 2.2 per ct. of fiber, while, 
owing to the woody hulls, oats contain 10.9 per ct. ]\lost roughages, 
especially the straws, are much higher in fiher than the concentrates. 
Mangels contain but 0.8 per ct. fiber; were they dried to the same 
water content as oats they would contain only 7.7 per ct. fiber — less 
than oats. 

Fat. — A sample of the pulverized dried fodder is treated with ether, 
which dissolves out the fats and also the waxes and resins, the chloro 
phyll, or green coloring matter, and similar substances. This, called 
ether extract in works on plant analysis, is for convenience termed fat 
in this work. The ether extract of seeds is nearly all true fat or oil, 
while that of the leaves and stems of plants contains much chlorophyll, 
w^ax, etc. Corn and oats carry more fat than the other cereals. Some 
seeds, such as flax seed, are so rich in oil that it may be extracted from 
them by crushing and subsequent pressure. 

Nitrogen-free extract. — The nitrogen-free extract, expressed in the 
tables in this book as N-frec extract, embraces the substances that are 
extracted from the dry matter of plants by treatment w'ith weak acids 
and alkalies under standard conditions, less the crude protein, fat, and 
ash. It is determined by difference and not by direct analysis. The 
total drj^ matter in a feeding stuff minus the sum of the ash, crude 
protein, fiber, and fat, equals the nitrogen-free extract. It embraces 
the sugars, starches, pentoses, non-nitrogenous organic acids, etc., of 
the plant. The nitrogen-free extract is more soluble and hence more 
digestible than the fiber, and thus has a higher nutritive value. Over 
70 per ct. of both corn and wheat is nitrogen-free extract, largely 
starch. The roughages, carrying much woody fiber, contain less of 
these more soluble carbohydrates than the concentrates. The nitro- 
gen-free extract and fiber together constitute the carbohydrates. 

Roughages and concentrates. — These terms are used to dift'eren- 



14 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

liate feeding stuffs of a coarse, bulky nature from those which are 
iiiore coiuleused and nutritious. 

Concentrates arc feeding- stuffs of condensed nature, which are low 
in fiber and hence furnish a larj>e amount of digestible matter. 
p]xami)lcs of this class of feeds arc the various grains, as Indian corn, 
wheat, and oats, and milling by-products of high feeding value, as 
wheat bran, linseed meal, gluten feed, etc. 

Roughages are the coarser feeding stuffs, which are high in fiber and 
supply a lower percentage of digestible matter. Such feeds as hay, 
corn fodder, straw, and silage belong to this class. Some of the low- 
grade milling by-products, such as oat hulls, ground corncobs, and 
peanut hulls are roughages, rather than concentrates, for they are 
largely fiber and furnish but little nutriment. Roots are watery and 
bulky, and contain relatively little nutriment per pound, yet based 
on the composition of the dry substance they are more like concen- 
trates than roughages, as they are low in fiber. They are really 
watery, or diluted, concentrates, tho for convenience they are included 
under fresh green roughages in Appendix Table I. 

III. The Study of an Acre of Corn 

The manner in which plants grow and store nutrients is well shown 
by a study of Indian corn, the greatest of our agricultural plants. 

Changes in a growing corn crop. — By analyzing corn plants at 
various stages from July 24, when they were about 4 ft. high, until 
Oct. <S, when the kernels were hard, Jones of the Indiana Station ^ 
secured the following data, based on an average stand of 10,000 stalivs 
l)er acre. 

Composition of an acre of Indian corn at different stages 

Total wt. Dry Crude Nfree 

Stage of groNvth of green matter Ash proteia Fiber extract Fat 

crop in crop 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Four feet high, July 24 5,138 731 90 149 170 282 40 

First tassels, Aug. G. . 18,827 2,245 195 360 670 977 42 

Silks drying, Aug. 28. 24,327 4,567 272 436 1,203 2,606 49 

Milk stage, Sept. 10 .. 26,710 6,174 328 544 1,361 3,846 95 

(J lazing stage, Sept. 24 25,750 8,104 389 566 1,523 5,425 202 

Silage stage, Oct. 1... 25,275 8,929 369 660 1,602 6,084 215 

Keaciy to shock, Oct. 8 . 22,253 9,412 383 691 1,737 6,336 265 

From July 24, at a stage when sometimes unwisely fed as soilage, 
to Aug. 28, when the silks wer^ drying, the crop increased over 
19,000 lbs. in total weight and nearly 4,000 lbs. in dry matter. The 

X Ind. Rul. 175; see also Ladd, N. Y. (Geneva) Ept. 1889. 



HOW PLANTS GROW 



15 



increase in total weight was thereafter less rapid, reaching the maxi- 
mum when the kernels were in the milk stage. After this the gross 
weight decreased by over 4,000 lbs., due to drying out as the crop 
matured. The dry matter, however, continued to increase rapidly 
until the plants were fully ripe. Indeed, in less than a month follow- 
ing Aug. 28 the acre of corn stored over 3,500 lbs. of dry matter! 
When four feet high the crop was nearly 86 per et. water and only 
14 per ct. dry matter; while when the kernels were hard and the 
husks dry over 42 per ct. was dry matter. The mineral matter, or 
ash, increased rapidly until the plants reached their full height. 



CRUDE PROTEIN 




riBEfl 




NITROGEN-FREE 


EXTRACT 


FAT 






FIRST TASSELS 



SILKS DRYING 



CLAZINC STAGE 



SILACE STAGE 



Fig. 6. — Nutrients iisr Corn Plants at Various Stages 

Tlie shaded areas in tlie legend represent tlie amount of crude protein, fiber, 
nitrogen-free extract, and fat in corn plants at various stages. (From In- 
diana Station.) 



The most rapid increase in crude protein, the nitrogenous portion, 
occurred in the period before the plants were tasseled, when cell 
growth was most active, but some increase occurred until the plants 
reached maturity. Altho amids — the building-stones of the proteins — 
were constantly being formed during the development of the plants, 
they were in turn quickly built over into the more complex, stable 
proteins. Hence it was found in further studies that the amount of 
amids did not increase after the plants were silked, while there was a 
steady storage of true protein up to maturity. 



IG FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

Since the stalk of the corn plant must be strong and sturdy to earrv' 
the abundant foliage and the heavy ear, the fiber increased rapidly 
until the woody framework was grown. 

Tlie table shows that the nitrogen-free extract, the most valuable 
portion of the carbohydrates, made up of sugars, starch, and the other 
more soluble carbohydrates, increased more than 2.5 tons between 
tasseling and ripening. This increase was chiefly starch, for, altho 
sugars were being steadily formed in the leaves of the plants, they 
were being continuously transferred to other parts, especially the 
swelling kernels of the ear, where they were changed to starch. 
Another portion of the sugars was changed into cellulose to form the 
woody framework of the plant structure. The elements of a third 
portion were combined with nitrates and other mineral matter from 
the soil to form the nitrogenous amids and proteins. 

At the milk stage, starch formed less than a fifth of the nitrogen - 
free extract, but after this it increased rapidly as it was stored in 
the maturing kernels. From the milk stage to the date when the corn 
was ready to shock, less than a month, there was a gain of nearly 
2,500 lbs, of nitrogen-free extract, over a ton of which was starch. 
This shows plainly the heavy losses of valuable nutrients which occur 
when a crop of corn is harvested too early. 

In producing this acre of corn, probably not over 10 lbs. of seed was 
placed in the ground in the spring time. From this insignificant 
beginning, by the following October, about 130 days later, the resultant 
l)lants had gathered inorganic matter — carbon dioxid from the air, and 
water, nitrogen, and mineral matter from the soil — and built all these, 
first into primary organic forms, and finally into complex organic 
parts of their structure. The product of such building amounted to 
over 11 tons of green or 4.7 tons of dry matter, nearly all available 
for nourisliing the animals of the farm and, thru them, man. This is a 
forceful illustration of Nature's wonderful processes of food produc- 
tion occurring all about us under the guiding hand of man. 

The end of plant effort. — In the life of the plant, we find that the 
first effort is toward self-establishment and enlargement. At this 
time all the material formed in the plant is transferred to the growing 
parts. As the plant approaches maturity, its energies are changed 
from growth to reproduction, or the formation of seed. For example, 
in the corn plants the nutrients are now poured in a steady current 
into the ear, where the kernels rapidly develop. In each of these 
grains is the germ — a miniature plant — composed largely of protein, 
about which is stored a generous supply of rich nutrients — proteins, 
starch, sugar, oil, and mineral matter — all in compact, coneenti'ated 
form after Nature's choicest plan, to nourish the new life which is tu 
foUow if the kernel finds lodgment in the soil. 



HOW PLANTS GROW 17 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name the 10 elements essential for jilant growth and 4 others Avhicli are 
commonly found in plants. 

2. Make a sketch of a growing plant, sliowing wlierc it secures each essen- 
tial element. 

3. How do legumes indirectly use free nitrogen gas from the air? 

4. How are the first simple plant compounds formed? 

5. Define carbohydrates. State what classes of compounds are included in 
tliis group and tell what you can about each. 

6. How do fats and carbohydrates differ in composition? 

7. Distinguish between crude protein, proteins, and amids. 

8. Why do not the amids accumulate in the plant during its growth? 

9. In analyzing feeding stuffs, what groups of plant substances do chemists 
usually determine? 

10. How is the amount of each found? 

11. What is meant by concentrates and roughages? 

12. Discuss the storage in the growing corn plant of the various nutrients, 
especially ^he carbohydrates. 



CHAPTER II 

THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— :\rETABOLISM 

I. The Composition op the Animal Body 

Having studied the composition of plants and the manner in whieh 
they grow, let us now study the composition of the bodies of farm 
animals, which are nourished by plants. 

The animal body. — The bodies of the higher animals consist of a 
bony skeleton, chietly of mineral matter, surrounded by an elaborate 
muscular system. Fatty tissue permeates the bones and muscles, tilling 
in and rounding out the body form, and around all is the enveloping 
skin. Within the body cavity are the various special organs, such as 
the heart, stomach, etc., designed for dissolving, distributing, and 
utilizing the nutrients of the food and for disposing of the waste. 
All these organs are nitrogenous or protein in nature, as are also a 
part of the organic matter of the bones and a large portion of the 
nerves, which control and direct all body activities. 

Therefore, one of the fundamental differences between plants and 
animals is that in animals the walls of the body cells are made chiefly 
of protein, while in plants the walls of the cells are composed of cellu- 
lose, which is a carbohydrate. Furthermore, in plants starch, another 
carbohydrate, is the chief form in which reserve food is stored. In 
animals, on the other hand, nearly all the reserve food is stored in the 
form of fat. Tho small amounts of glucose and glycogen, or animal 
starch, perform important functions in the bodies of animals, as we 
shall see later in this chapter, these carbohydrates at no time form an 
appreciable part of the animal's weight. 

Composition of animals. — Over 60 years ago Lawes and Gilbert, 
the famous English agricultural scientists, analyzed the entire bodies 
of several farm animals — a task involving much labor. During recent 
years similar studies have been made at certain of the American experi- 
ment stations. The following table, ^ which summarizes some of these 
investigations, shows that the composition of the bodies of farm animals 
varies greatly according to their age and degree of fatness : 

1 Data for cattle from Haecker, Proc. Amer. Soc. Anim. Prod., 1014, and for 
sheep and swine from Lawes and Gilbert, Pliilosopliical 'I'lansactions, 1859. 

18 



THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 19 

Composition of the bodies of farm animals * 

Water Protein P;it Ash 

Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. 

Calf, \vt. 100 lbs 71. S 1!».!) 4.0 4.:] 

Calf, \vt. 300 lbs ()(i.:5 10.0 10.2 4.5 

Ciowinj,' steer, \vt. 700 lbs •. 00.3 18.(3 Ki.O 4.5 

Partly fat steer, \vt. 1,000 lbs 53.0 17.U 25.0 3.8 

Fat steer, \vt. 1,200 lbs 48.0 16.G 31.1 3.7 

Very fat steer, \vt. 1,500 lbs 43.5 15.7 37.7 3.2 

Fat Iamb 52.3 13.4 31.2 3.2 

Sheep, before fattening (il.O 15.7 19.9 3.4 

Half-fat sheep 55.2 15.4 25.9 3.5 

Fat slieej) 40.2 13.0 37.9 3.0 

Very fat slieep 37.1 11.5 48.3 3.1 

Hog, before fattening 58.1 14.5 24.6 2.8 

Fat hog 43.0 11.4 43.9 1.7 

* Not including contents of digestive tract. 

The table shows that 71.8 per ct. of the body of a 100-lb. calf is 
water and that the proportion of water steadily grows less as the 
animal matures and fattens, the body of a very fat 1,500-lb. steer 
containing only 43.5 per ct. water. The percentage of protein remains 
quite constant during growth but decreases as the animal fattens. 
On the other hand, the percentage of fat increases gradually during 
growth, and more rapidly while fattening. Over one-third of the 
carcass of the fattened 1,500-lb. steer is fat. The percentage of ash, 
or mineral matter, shows the least change, but decreases as the animal 
fattens, since the fatty tissue contains but little mineral matter. 
Similar changes occur in the bodies of sheep and swine as the animals 
mature and fatten. In general, the bodies of sheep and swine at the 
same degree of fatness contain less water and protein and considerably 
more fat than those of cattle. The fat hog, for example, contains 
43.9 per ct. fat and only 11.4 per ct. protein. Due to their small 
skeletons, the bodies of swine contain less ash than those of cattle and 
sheep. 

II. Digestion 

The changes which food undergoes within the digestive tract of 
animals to separate the useful portion from the waste matter and 
prepare it for absorption and final use in the body are known as 
digestion. 

Nutrients and rations. — In discussing stock feeding it is necessary 
to understand clearly what is meant by each of the following terms : 

The term nutrient is applied to any food constituent or group of 
food constituents of the same general chemical composition, that aid in 
the support of animal life. Crude protein, the carbohydrates, and 



20 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

fat constitute the generally recognized classes of nutrients, altho air, 
water, and mijieral matter might likewise be so termed. 

The term digestible nutrient covers that ])()rtion of each nutrient 
which may be digested and taken into tiic body. 

A ration is the feed allowed for a given animal during a day of 
24 hours, whether all is fed at one time or in portions at different 
times. 

A balanced ration is one which furnishes the several nutrients — 
crude protein, carbohydrates, and fat — in such proportion and amount 
as will properly nourish a given animal for 24: hours. 

The alimentary canal. — The alimentary canal is a long, tortuous 
tube passing thru the animal from mouth to vent, enlarged in places 
for the storage of food or waste. It includes the mouth, gullet, 



C 
i 





Fig. 7. — Diagram of the Digestive Tract of the Cow 

A, Salivary "ilaiids; b, j>iillet ; c, pauncii, or first stonuu'h (Only a small part 
of the paunch is here visible, tlie rear portion being hidden by the intestines) ; 
d, honeycomb, or second stomach; e, manyplies, or third stomach; f, fourth, or 
true stomach; g, duodenum, or first part of small intestine; h, mesenteric ])art 
of small intestine; i, caecum; j, colon; k, rectum; 1, point of entrance of bile 
duct into duodenum; m, point of entrance of pancreatic duct into duodenum. 
The intestines are spread out somewhat in this diagram. 

stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. "Within its linings are 
organs which secrete the various tluids of digestion, and into it, from 
other organs located near by, pour still other digestive fluids. Within 
its walls are nerves controlling its action, arteries which nourish it 
with fresh blood, and veins and l^anphatics which absorb and carry 
from it the products of digestion. 

Ruminants (animals which chew the cud), including the ox, sheep, 
and goat, have much more complicated digestive tracts than other 
animals. In the horse and pig the gullet is a simple muscular tube 
passing from the mouth to the stomach. In ruminants the gullet if 



THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 21 

expanded just before the true stomach is reached into three compart- 
ments of g:reat aggregate capacit}^ the first and by far the largest of 
which is the paunch ; the second, the honeycomb ; and the third, the 
manyplies. The 4 stomachs of a full grown steer may hold over 250 
quarts, Avhile the single stomach of a horse holds only 12 to 19 (luarts, 
and of a pig about 8.5 quarts. 

The small intestine is the long, folded, tortuous tube into which the 
stomach empties. It is about 130 ft. long in mature cattle, 70 ft. in 
horses, 80 ft. in sheep, and 60 ft. in swine. Its average capacity is 
about as follows: cattle, 70 quarts; horse, 50 to 65 quarts; sheep and 
swine, 10 quarts. The large intestine, into which the small intestine 
empties, is larger in diameter but much shorter. In the horse, that 
part of the large intestine next to the small intestine, called the 
blind gut, or caecum, is greatly enlarged. Due to this, the large 
intestine of this animal holds from 120 to 140 quarts. Were it not 
for this caecum, the horse would be unable to consume and digest 
large amounts of roughage. In cattle the large intestine has a capacity 
of about 40 quarts, and in sheep 6 quarts. The pig, which has neither 
the 4 stomachs of the iiiminants nor the large caecum of the horse, is 
not well fitted to use large amounts of roughage. His large intestine, 
however, holds nearly twice as much as that of the sheep, which aids 
him somewhat in disposing of coarse feed. 

Mastication. — In the mouth the food is crushed and ground by the 
teeth and at the same time moistened by the alkaline, somewhat slimy, 
saliva, moist and slippery masses being formed which pass readily 
thru the gullet into the stomach. Exceedingly large amounts of saliva 
are secreted by the larger farm animals, especiall}^ when eating dry 
feed. For example, a horse may secrete as much as 90 lbs. during 
24 hours. 

Ruminants while eating chew their food only enough to moisten it, 
if dry, and form it into masses of suitable 'size to be swallowed. The 
gullet of ruminants opens into the first 2 stomachs thru a slit called 
the esophageal groove, which has an exceedingly important function. 
When the ox swallows the masses of solid food, which are so large as 
to distend the gullet, on coming to the slit they are pressed out thru it, 
just as would be the case if one tried to force thru a rubber tube with 
a slit in it an object like a ball which fitted it tightly. These masses 
of food usually pass into the paunch until it is full, and then on into 
the honeycomb instead. When hunger is satisfied the animal seeks a 
quiet phiee and proceeds to ruminate, or "chew the cud." By con- 
tractions of the muscular i)aunch, the honeycomb, and of the gullet 
itself, the food is forced back to the mouth in "cuds." Here each cud 
is thoroly chewed and saliva is added until the material becomes more 



22 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABKIDGED 

or less souplike. On being reswallowed, this finely divided material 
usually flows along^ the gullet past the slit, and directly into the third 
stomach, from which it passes into the fourth, or true stomach. Water 
or liquid food, when first swallowed, may not be forced thim the slit 
into the paunch but may pass at once to the third stomach. 

Enzymes. — As most of the changes which food undergoes in diges- 
tion are effected thru enzymes, their general nature should be clearly 
understood. Enzymes are mysterious organic compounds which are 
able to change or break down other organic compounds without them- 
selves being changed or broken down. To illustrate the action of 
enzymes, we will take ptyalin, the enzyme contained in the saliva, 
that converts the starch of the food, which is insoluble, into sugar, 
which is soluble. If starch is mixed with saliva and the whole kept at 
body temperature, the starch gradually dissolves, being changed to 
sugar. Thru the action of the ptyalin, the complex starch molecule has 
been cleaved, or split, into the simpler molecules of sugar. If starch 
is mixed merely wuth water, instead of saliva, this change will not 
occur. 

The ptyalin is not itself altered by this process, for, if more starch is 
added and the resulting sugar removed, the process may be repeated 
many times. However, heating the enzyme above a certain tempera- 
ture destroys it. At freezing temperature its action ceases, tho the 
enzyme is not destroyed, for on warming it becomes active again. 
Ptyalin acts best in a neutral or slightly alkaline solution and is 
destroyed by the presence of much acid, while some other enzymes act 
only in acid solutions. Each of the enzymes of digestion is capable of 
acting on only one of the groups of nutrients — on proteins, on carbo- 
hydrates, or on fats. 

Digestion in the mouth. — Not only is the food prepared for swallow- 
ing in the mouth, but in most animals the first step in digestion occurs 
here, thru the action of ptyalin on the starch in the food. The saliva 
of cattle and dogs, however, contains little or no ptyalin, and that of 
horses but little. The saliva of swine contains a fair amount, and that 
of man, monkeys, rabbits, rats, and mice has the greatest starch digest- 
ing power. 

Digestion in the simple stomach. — AVith such animals as the horse 
and pig, which have simple stomachs, the food passes directly from the 
mouth thru the gullet to the single stomach. The glands in the walls 
of the stomach secrete the digestive fluid called gastric juice. This 
contains the enzymes pepsin and rennin, and from 0.2 to 0.5 per ct. of 
hytlrochloric acid. If the food became acid as soon as it reached the 
stomach the action of the ptyalin of the saliva would cease at once. 
However, the first part of the stomach does not secrete any acid, 



THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABULIISM 



23 



and so the action of the pt^alin on starch continues in this part of that 
organ. The intestinal or rear end of the stomach, on the other hand, 
secretes much acid. Here the action of the ptyalin ceases and pepsin 
digestion becomes active. 

Pepsin, which acts only in weak acid solutions, converts the very 
complex proteins into soluble and simpler, tho still complex, products 




Fig. 8. — Longitudinal Section of Stomach of the Horse 

A, UOsophagiis, or gullet; b, oesophageal region of stomach, in wliich no gastric 
juice is secreted; c, entrance of gullet; d, left extremity of stomacii ; e, boundary 
between a>sophageal region and portion of stomach secreting gastric juice; f. g, 
fundus gland region and pyloric gland region, in which gastric juice is secreted; 
h, pylorus, or ring of muscles closing tlie stomach; i, entrance of pancreatic and 
bile ducts. (From Sisson, ''Anatomy of the Domestic Animals.") 

known as proteoses and peptones. Beuuin, the other enzyme of the 
gastric juice, changes milk into a solid curd. AVere it not for this, 
milk would pass on quickly into the small intestine befoi'e its proteins 
had been digested by pepsin. 

Soon after the food reaches the stomach, its walls begin a series of 



•24 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

re<?ular contractions which pass in waves toward the intestinal end. 
When digestion has progressed sufficiently, as a contraction reaches 
the rear end of the stomach, the ring of muscles which keeps the 
stomach shut off from the small intestine relaxes and allows a small 
quantity of the semi-liquid contents of the stomach to spurt thru into 
the intestine. After this the ring of muscles again contracts, closing 
the entrance. The stomach now slowly relaxes, and soon the process 
is repeated. By this means the fluid matter is squeezed out and 
carried into the small intestine, while the more solid portions remain 
behind for further action by the gastric juice. Little or no digestion 
of fat takes place in the stomach. 

Stomach digestion of ruminants. — Tho the first three stomachs of 
ruminants secrete no enzymes, but only water, they are highly 
important in digestion. The nutrients of plants are enclosed within 
the cell walls, and where these are of hard, thick cellulose, as in hay 
and straw, the digestive fluids can not easily reach and attack the 
luitrients locked within. As we have seen, when ruminants swallow 
solid food it passes chiefly into the paunch. Here it is softened by the 
moisture, slowly but thoroly mixed by muscular contractions, and 
ground against the rough lining. All this prepares the food for easy 
digestion farther on. 

A considerable amount of actual digestion also occurs in these first 
stomachs, especially in the paunch, thru the action of bacteria. The 
bacteria attack the cellulose and pentosans of the feed (for which 
Nature has provided no other means of digestion) and break them 
down with the production of heat and the formation of organic acids 
and of gases, including marsh gas, carbon dioxid, and hydrogen. The 
acids serve as food, the same as do the sugars, but the gases are useless 
and are excreted. In this bacterial action the cell walls of the feed 
are broken down, setting free the nutrients contained within. Not only 
do the bacteria digest cellulose and pentosans, but they may also attack 
starch and sugar. This action is detrimental, for these nutrients 
would be digested more efficiently later on in the small intestine, while 
in the bacterial digestion a considerable part of their feeding value is 
lost thru the heat and gases produced in the fermentations. When 
fresh, easily fermented forage, such as green clover or alfalfa, is eaten, 
the bacterial action may then be so great that gas is produced faster 
than it can be carried away, and "bloat" results. 

After rumination, the rcswallowed food passes chiefly into the 
Qianyplies, or third stomach, where it is further ground between the 
muscular folds before being forced into the fourth, or true stomach, 
in the latter the digestive processes are similar to those in the simple 
stomach, as previously described. 



THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 25 

Digestion in the small intestine. — When received into the small 
intestine, the partially digested food is a semi-liquid mass. As yet, 
the fats in the food have not been digested, and the digestion of the 
proteins and carbohydrates is far from complete. Here the vv'ork of 
digestion proceeds even more vigorously than in the stomach, all classes 
of nutrients being attacked. The small intestine receives near its 
upper part digestive fluids from two outside organs, the liver and the 
pancreas, and another digestive juice is secreted in the wall of the 
intestine itself. Immediately on entering the small intestine the 
inpouring material is changed from an acid to an alkaline character 
thru the rapid addition of bile and pancreatic juice, both alkaline. 
This stops the action of the pepsin, which works only when acid is 
jn'csent. 

The pancreatic juice. — The pancreatic juice is produced by the 
pancreas, or sweetbread, a slender gland lying just beyond the stomach 
and connected with the small intestipe by a duct. The chief enzymes 
it contains are trypsin, amylase, and lipase. Trypsin, like pepsin, 
changes protein into proteoses and pe|: tones, and is also able to break 
some of these partially digested substances further into amino acids. 
It is believed that before the food protein can be absorbed and used by 
the animal body it must all be cleaved into amino acids, which, as we 
have seen in Chapter I, are the simple "building stones" from which 
proteins are formed. Amylase changes starch into sugar. Lipase 
splits fats into fatty acids and glycerin. The fatty acids unite with 
alkalies in the bile to form soaps, and are absorbed from the intestine 
in this form. 

The bile. — The bile, secreted by the liver, the largest organ in the 
body, is a greenish or golden colored fluid, alkaline and extremely 
bitter in taste. It contains no enzymes but is nevertheless exceedingly 
important in digestion, as it furnishes the alkalies nc^^essary to change 
the fatty acids formed by lipase into soaps. It also aids in emulsifjdng 
the undigested fat ; i. e., breaking it up into very minute droplets, so 
that it can be more readily acted on by the lipase. Furthermore, in 
some manner the bile increases the digestive power of the pancreatic 
juiee and is thot to act as an antiseptic. After performing its work 
nnu'h of the bile is absorbed from the intestine and, passing back to 
the liver, is used once more. 

The intestinal secretion. — The digestive fluid secreted by the mucous 
membrane of the small intestine contains several enzymes, the most 
important of which are erepsin and the invertases. Erepsin attacks 
the proteoses and peptones which have escaped the action of trypsin 
and breaks them up into amino acids. It can not act on protein which 
has not already been split into proteoses and peptones. The invertases 



26 , FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABKIDGED 

(sucrase, maltase, and lactase) change cane sugar, malt sugar, and 
milk sugar into the simpler glucose-like sugars. 

Due to the vigorous action of the enzymes in the small intestine, 
digestion is very thoro and under ordinary conditions little that is 
useful is lost. The larger portion of all the digested matter is absorbed 
from the small intestine, thus entering the body proper, as is shown 
later in this chapter. 

The large intestine. — From the small intestine the undigested 
material passes into the large intestine. Little, if any, digestive fluid 
is ])roduced here, but a small amount of digestion may go on owing to 
digestive enzymes carried in from the small intestine and to the action 
of bacteria. The bacteria may not only attack cellulose but also may 
cause the putrefaction of undigested protein, in which action foul- 
smelling substances are formed which are poisonous if absorbed in 
large quantities. The waste, or feces, is finally expelled from the 
large intestine. Besides undigested matter, the feces contain residues 
of the digestive juices and countless bacteria or their remains. If 
the large intestine is not functioning normally, the contents may 
remain for an undue time, and excessive putrefaction ma^' take place, 
injuring the animal thru the absorption of the poisonous products 
formed. 

Special provision for the horse. — As has been mentioned before, the 
horse has a large caecum, or blind gut, in partial compensation for its 

small stomach and lack of 
a paunch. The incom- 
pletely digested matter 
from the small intestine, 
together with the enzymes 
mixed with it, passes into 
the caecum. Here the en- 
zyme action continues and 
the cellulose of the feed is 
also attacked and digested 
'■•- by bacteria, as in the 

paunch of ruminants. 

Due to this, the horse is 

Fig. 9.— CaecuxM op Horse able to digest such feeds 

The entrance of the small intestine is desig- ^S hay and straw quite 
nated (I). The opening of tiie caecum into the thoroly, tho less COm- 
large intestine is hidden from view. (From Sis- pletelv than can cattlc 
son, "Anatomy of the Domestic Animals.") ^ , ; 

and sheep. 

Palatability. — The palatability of feeds is a factor of no small 
importance in the feeding of stock. Experiments have shown that the 




THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 27 

mere sight or smell of well-liked food will cause a marked flow of saliva 
and even cause some flow of the gastric juice. It is reasonable to 
believe, therefore, that well-liked feeds are digested better than others 
which may be equally nutritious but are less palatable. 

Even with farm animals palatability is greatly influenced and con- 
trolled by familiarity and habit or custom. When corn silage is first 
placed before cows, not infrequently, after sniffing it, they will let it 
alone for a time. They then usually begin nibbling at it, and later 
may gorge themselves thereon if permitted. In such cases food that at 
first seems unpalatable becomes palatable. 

In his early experience the senior author was feeding tAvo lots of 
fattening steers, one on shelled corn and the other on shelled corn 
ground into meal, both receiving wheat bran in addition. After some 
weeks of successful feeding, the rations for the two lots w^ere reversed. 
The steers changed from corn meal to whole corn showed a strong dis- 
like for the new ration, eating so little at first that thej^ shrank in 
weight. From this the general conclusion might have been drawn that 
shelled corn is less palatable than corn meal for fattening steers. But 
the steers given corn meal in place of shelled corn Avere equally dis- 
satisfied. This shows that custom and habit — something entirely 
extraneous to the food — are possible factors in palatability. Every 
practical stockman knows that to get the best results he must at all 
times provide feed for his animals which is palatable and altogether 
acceptable. This may be accomplished in considerable degree by 
steadily using the same feeds and feed combinations, and in always 
avoiding sudden and violent changes in their character and in the 
manner of feeding. 

III. Metabolism 

We have learned how digestion prepares the various nutrients for 
the nourishment of the body. Let us now consider the manner in 
which the digested nutrients are brought from the alimentary tract 
into the body proper, and what becomes of them. Chemists and 
physiologists, working together with skill and great patience, have 
been able quite fully to explain the processes of digestion. When the 
nutrients leave the alimentary tract and enter the body, the difficulties 
of following them and learning what becomes of them are much greater. 
Many of the changes that occur in the body have been revealed by 
persevering scientists, but concerning others only little of a definite 
nature can yet be told. 

Metabolism. — The processes by which the digested nutrients of the 
food are absorbed and used for the production of heat, work, and milk, 
or built up into the living matter of the body, in turn being broken 



28 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



down and once more beeoniiiiii,- non-living matter, are termed 
mctal)olis))ir 

The circulatory canals of the body. — The body of the animal is 
made np of innumerable cells, which, grouped and modified in myriads 
of ways, form all its organs and parts. Everywhere among the cells 
are minute spaces called lymph spaces, Avhich are connected with the 
lymphatics, a set of vessels which permeate most parts of the body. 
Tn some respects the lymphatics resemble the veins, but they are 
thinner and more transparent and drain in only one direction — toward 
the heart. Within these vessels is a clear fluid called lymph. These 
vessels unite with one another, forming a network in many places. 




Fig. 10. — Diagram of the Circulation of the Blood 

1, The lieart; 2, artery carrying blood to tlie head and fore limbs; 3, circula- 
tion thru the upper portion of tlie body; 4, vein carrying blood from upper part 
of body back to the heart; 5, artery carrying venous blood to lungs; G, circula- 
tion tliru lungs; 7, vein carrying arterial Idood back to heart; 8, artery carrying 
blood to lower portion of body; 9, circulation tliru rear extremities; 10, vein 
carrying blood to heart from rear extremities; 11, artery carrying blood to in- 
testines; 12, circulation thru intestinal capillaries; 13, portal vein carrying 
blood to liver; 14, circulation thru liver. (From Smith, "Manual of Veterinary 
Physiology.") 



Here and there a trunk subdivides into five or six smaller vessels, and 
the latter enter a nodule-like body called a lymphatic gland. From 
this gland come several small vessels, which, after a short space, again 
unite to form a trunk. Gradually these trunks unite, forming larger 
trunks until a large duct and another smaller one are formed which 
enter veins in the neck. 

The arteries and the veins are the other set of canals. These perme- 
ate every portion of the body, the former carrying the blood away from 
the heart, and the latter carrying it to the heart. At the extremities 
of the arteries are still more minute tubes, called capillaries, which con- 

2 Constructive metabolism, or the building-up processes, is termed anabolism, 
while the breaking-down and wasting processes are called catabolism. 



THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 29 

nect them with the veins. If one extends his arms in front of him with 
his finger tij^s touching, his body will represent the heart, while one 
arm will represent an artery carrying blood from the heart, ar.d the 
other a vein conveying blood to the heart. The touching fingers will 
correspond to the capillaries connecting tJie arteries- with the veins, and 
the space all about the fingers will represent the surrounding body 
tissues. In general, neither the veins nor the arteries allow any sub- 
stance within them to escape thru their walls proper. It is thru the 
capillaries that the nutritive matter carried by the blood finds its way 
into the body tissues for their nourishment, and thru the" capillaries and 
the lymphatics, in turn, the waste of the body drains back into the blood 
circulation. 

The tissues of the body are thus everywhere permeated by the duets 
of the lymphatic system and the capillaries of the blood system. The 
cells are bathed by l3nnph, which is the fluid that receives and tem- 
porarily holds all the nutritive substances and the body wastes. 

The digested nutrients are absorbed into the circulation chiefly thru 
the walls of the small intestine. The mucous membrane lining it has a 
velvety appearance, caused by innumerable minute, eone-like projec- 
tions, or tongues, called villi, which project into the interior of j^he intes- 
tinal tube, thereby coming into intimate contact with its fluid contents. 
\Vithin each villus are lacteals, or drainage tubes of the lymphatic 
system, and capillaries of the blood system. 

Digestion and absorption of fat. — In discussing the manner in which 
the various nutrients are absorbed, let us at the same time review their 
digestion, tracing just what becomes of each after entering the mouth. 

The fats of food undergo no appreciable digestion until they reach 
the small intestine. Here thru the aid of the l>ile they are split by the 
lipase of the pancreatic juice into fatt}' acids and glycerin. The 
alkalies in the bile then unite with these fatty acids to form soaps. 
It is believed that practically all of the fats are absorbed in the form 
of soaps and glycerin ; these are then reunited into fats in the intestinal 
wall. Some of the fatty acids and glycerin formed by the action of 
tlie lipase may perhaps be absorbed directly, without the fatty acids 
being first changed to soaps. In the villi of the intestinal wall the 
fats enter the lacteals, forming with the lymph a milk}^ substance called 
chyle. This is carried by the lymphatics and poured into a vein near 
the shoulder, thus entering the blood circulation. 

Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates. — Carbohydrate diges- 
tion begins in the mouth, where the ptyalin in the saliva changes starch 
into malt sugar. This action continues in the first part of the stomach, 
but ceases when the food becomes acid in the rear end of that 
organ. Simple, glucose-like sugars may be absorbed directly from the 



no 



FEEDS AND EEEDING, ABRIDGED 




stomach in small amounts, but uearly all the carbohydrates are carried 
on into the small intestine. Here the starch which escaped being acted 
upon in tlie mouth or stomach is changed into malt sugar by amylase, 
an enzj-me in the pancreatic juice. The compound cane, malt, and 
milk sugars arc then split into simple glucose- 
like sugars by the action of the invertases, en- 
zymes in tlie intestinal juice. These simple, 
glucose-like sugars, which are the only carbo- 
hydrates that can be used in the body, are ab- 
sorbed thru the walls of the small intestine, and, 
entering the capillaries, pass into the veins and 
thence to the liver. Here they are for the most 
part withdrawn from the blood and temporarily 
stored in this organ as glycogen, a carbohydrate 
which is closely related to starch and, having 
the same percentage composition, is sometimes 
called animal starch. Normally from 1.5 to 4.0 
per ct. of the weight of the liver consists of 
glycogen. The glycogen stored in the liver is 
gradually changed back into glucose, and then 
given out to the system as required, the amount 
of glucose in the blood being kept at about 1 part 
in 1,000. In addition to the liver, all the tissues 
of the bod,y, especially the muscles, have some 
power to change glucose into glycogen. 

The cellulose and pentosans in the feed are 
attacked by bacteria in the first three stomachs 
of ruminants, in the caecum of horses, and to 
some extent in the large intestine of other animals. These bacteria 
break down the cellulose and pentosans into organic acids and also 
gases (marsh gas, carbon dioxid, and hydrogen), heat being produced 
in the process. The gases are of no value but the organic acids serve as 
food the same as sugars. 

Digestion and absorption of protein. — The proteins of the food 
are first attacked in the stomach by pepsin, which splits them into 
proteoses and peptones. These are soluble and are simpler in com- 
position than the proteins, but are still very complex in structure. 
The proteoses and peptones, together with protein which escapes action 
by pepsin, pass into the small intestine. There trypsin, an enzyme in 
the pancreatic juice, not only splits the undigested protein into pro- 
teoses and peptones, but also digests tliem further, splitting them into 
amino acids, which are much simpler than the proteoses and peptones. 
Erepsin, an enzyme in the intestinal juice, also acts on the proteoses 



Fig. 11. — Vn.Li of 
THE Small In- 
testine 

A, Lining cells of 
intestine; b, net work 
of capillaries; c, lac- 
tcals. For the sake 
of simplicity the mus- 
cle fibers in tlic villi 
are not sliown in tliis 
diagram. (After 

Cadiat.) 



THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 31 

and peptones and splits them into amino acids. Thus thini the action 
of the trypsin and erepsin all the protein which can be digested is split 
into amino acids. The amino acids are absorbed thru the walls of the 
small intestine and pass into the blood. They are then carried into the 
general circulation, and from tlie blood each of the parts of the body — 
muscles, organs, etc. — absorbs a certain amount to be used for repair or 
in growth. 

A good picture of what takes place in protein digestion can be had 
by likening the food proteins to a house being taken down by a builder 
in order that he may construct another from the materials. An animal 
eating protein compounds cannot use them just as they are, but must 
first take them apart to a greater or less extent, and from the parts 
reconstruct other kinds of protein suitable for its own use. In other 
words, the proteins must have a different architecture from those in 
the plants. The proteoses and peptones icaay be likened to the roof 
and Avails of the house. These walls and roof can be separated into 
bricks and tiles, which are represented by the amino acids ; and from 
these the animal, beginning anew, can construct new proteins of the 
exact kind its body may require. 

Mineral matter; water. — The mineral matter in feeding stuffs is not 
acted upon by any enzymes, but is dissolved in its passage thru the 
digestive tract, especially in the stomach by the acid in the gastric juice. 
It is absorbed chiefly from the small intestine. 

Water requires no digestion and is absorbed chiefly from the small 
intestine, but also to some extent from the stomach and large intestine. 

Distribution and use of absorbed nutrients. — We have seen that the 
digested fats which are to nourish the body are poured into the blood 
current by way of the lymphatics, while the glucose and the amino acids 
enter the blood directly thru the capillaries and veins. The veins from 
the small intestine unite and become the portal vein, which passes the 
blood thru the liver and on into the heart. The various nutrients, 
having been mingled with the blood, are carried thm the circulation to 
the capillaries. 

These are so constructed that, when the blood finally reaches them, 
the nutrients it carries pass thru their walls and into the lymph that 
bathes the body cells. In this manner all the nutrients, having been 
especially prepared and transported, nourish every part of the body. 

The nutrients may be oxidized, or burned, to warm the animal, or to 
produce energy to carry on the vital processes and to perform work, as 
shown in the following chapters. In case more nutrients are supplied 
than are required for these purposes, the excess ma}^ be built into body 
tissue proper, as shown in Chapter V. The glucoses may be converted 
into fats and stored as body fat, as may also the fats derived directly 



32 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

from the food fats. The amino acids may be built up into body protein 
or, if not needed for this purpose, a portion of their carbon, hydrogen, 
and oxygen may be changed into fal., while the nitrogen is excreted 
from tlie body. Tlic higliest use of the proteins, liowever, is the forma- 
tion of nitrogenous tissues. 

Disposal of waste. — As we have seen, the undigested food, together 
with some other waste material, is voided in the feces. Nearly all of 
tlie nitrogenous waste resulting from the breaking down of protein in 
tlie body is excreted in the urine thru the kidneys, tho a trace is given 
off in the sweat and some in the feces. In mammals this waste takes 
the form principally of urea. Some of the mineral matter, especially 
calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus, is excreted in the feces. The 
rest is voided in the urine. 

In breaking up the food nutrients within the body for the produc- 
tion of heat and in the changes which occur in building them into body 
tissues, carbon dioxid is evolved. Most of this is absorbed from the 
stomach and intestines and is carried in the blood to the lungs, where 
it is passed out in breathing. Some of the marsli gas produced by 
fermentations in the stomach of herbivora is absorbed into the blood and 
thrown out by the lungs. 

Summary. — In Chapter I we learned how the various inorganir 
compounds taken by plants from earth, air, and water are built into 
organic plant compounds, and how in such building the energy of the 
sun becomes latent or hidden. In this chapter we have learned how 
the animal, feeding on plants, separates the useful from the waste by 
mastication and digestion, and liow the digested nutrients, after under- 
going more or less change, are carried from the alimentary canal to 
the body tissues and used for building the body, for warming it, or in 
performing work. All the energy manifested by living animals and 
the heat produced in their bodies represent the energy of the sun orig- 
inally stored in food substances by plants. With the breaking down of 
the nutrients in the bodies of animals, and in the decay of the animal 
substance itself, the organic matter loses the condition of life and falls 
back to the inorganic condition, once more becoming a part of the earth, 
air, and water. After this it is again gathered up by the plants and 
once more starts on the upward path. Such is the eternal round of 
Nature, in which plants, animals, the energy of the sun, and the mys- 
terious guiding principle of life all play their parts. 

QUESTIONS 

1. State two fundamental differences in the composition of plants and animals. 

2. How does the composition of an animal's body change as it grows? As it 
fattens? 



THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 33 

3. Define digestion, digestible nutrient, ration, and balanced ration. 

4. Describe the alimentary canal of the ox. 

5. How does a cow oliow her cud V 

(5. Define enzymes and describe the action of saliva on starcli. 

7. Describe digestion in (a) the mouth, (b) the simple stomach, (c) the 
stomach of ruminants, (d) the small intestine, (e) the large intestine. 

8. What special provision has the horse for digesting roughages? 
.t). Define metabolism. 

10. Describe the circulatory canals of the body. 

11. Describe the digestion and absorption of (a) fat, (b) of carbohydrates, (c) 
of protein. 

12. How is the body waste disposed of? 



CHAPTER III 

MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OP FEEDS 

I. Digestibility of Feeds 

In determining the relative usefulness of different feeding stuffs to 
the animal, it is necessary to find a means of measuring the amount of 
initrients which each actually furnishes. The most simple method is 
to determine the digestibility of the various nutrients ; i. e., the per- 
centage of the total crude protein, fiber, nitrogen-free extract, and fat 
in the feed which is digested by the animal. The digestible matter is 
obviously the only portion of the feed which is of use, since the 
remainder passes out in the feces without ever having really entered 
the body. 

A digestion trial. — In studying the digestibility of a given feed the 
chemist first determines by analysis the percentage of each nutrient it 
contains. The animal is then fed the feed to be tested for a pre- 
liminary period of a few daj's, in order that all residues of former feed 
may pass from the alimentary canal. Weighed quantities of the feed 
are then given to the animal and tiie feces voided during a stated 
period are collected and weighed, and samples are analyzed. The dif- 
ference between the amount of each nutrient fed and that found in 
the feces resulting therefrom represents the digested portion. 

To show the manner in which the digestibility of a feed is deter- 
mined, let us suppose that during a 10-day trial a cow was fed 20 lbs. of 
clover hay each day, containing the amounts of nutrients shown in the 
table. During this time she excreted, on the average, 47.3 lbs. of feces, 
containing the amounts of undigested diy matter, crude protein, fiber, 
nitrogen-free extract, and fat shown in the table : 

Digestion trial tvith coiv fed clover hay; average for 1 day 





Dry 

matter 


Crude 
protein 


Carbohydrates 






Fiber 

Lbs. 
o.l 
2.4 


N-frec 
extract 


Fat 


Fed 20 lbs. hav, containing 


Lbs. 

17.4 

7.1 


Lbs. 
2.0 
1.1 

1ft 

57.7 


Lbs. 

7.7 

2.6 


Lbs. 
0.(12 


Excreted 47.3 lbs. feces, containing 


0.28 


Digested 


10.3 
o9.2 


2.7 
52.9 


5 1 
lifi2 


0.34 

.'i4.8 









34 



MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 



35 



Subtracting the amounts of dry matter and of the different nutrients 
in the feces from the amounts in the feed, we find the amounts digested. 
From this we compute the percentage of each which is digested. For 
example, there was 17.4 lbs. of dry matter in the 20 lbs. of hay the cow 
ate each day. Of this, 7.1 lbs. was excreted in the feces, leaving 10.3 
lbs., or 59.2 per ct., as the part digested. 

Some feeds cannot l)e fed alone, as was done in this trial. For 
instance, horses and ruminants are not fed concentrates alone without 
hay or other roughage. Again, while pigs may be fed on grain only, 




Fig. 12. — 'K Steer in a Digestion Stale 

In digestion trials the feces may be collected in several ways. A common man- 
ner is by means of the liarness and rubber duct iiere shown. When it is merely 
desired to determine tlie digestibility of a feed, the urine need not be collected. 
In other nutrition studies the urine must be collected, as is being done in this 
trial. (From Armsby, Penn. Sta.) 



such feeds as tankage and linseed meal are too rich in protein to be 
so fed. The digestibility of such feeds must, therefore, be found by 
difference, instead of directly. To illustrate, a hor.se is first fed hay 
for several days and the digestibility of the hay determined. Oats 
may then be added to the ration, and the total amounts of nutrients 
digested from both feeds are found, just as in the preceding method. 
The amount of digestible nutrients coming from the hay is then sub- 
tracted from the total, leaving the amount assumed to be digested from 
the oats. 



36 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

Digestion coefficients. — The average percentage of each nutrient 
digested in a feeding stulit' is termed the digestion coefficient, or 
coefjicient of difjcstibilitij, for that nutrient in the feed. In Appendix 
Table II are given the digestion coefficients for some of the leading 
American feeds, selected from the extensive table in the unabridged 
edition of "Feeds and Feeding." This table shows that feeds which 
contain little fiber, such as corn and wheat, are highly digestible, 
because the cell walls are thin and easih-- penetrated by the digestive 
juices. The higher the fiber content of feeds, the thicker and more 
resistant are the cell walls, and consequently the less digestible are the 
feeds, as a rule. Thus, oats and wheat bran are less digestible than 
corn or wheat, and the roughages, such as hay and straw, have still 
lower digestion coefficients. In general, the nitrogen-free extract of 
feeds is slightly more digestible than the crude protein or fat, and 
much more digestible than the fiber.^ 

Digestible nutrients in feeding stuffs. — To find the digestible 
nutrients in any feeding stuff the total amount of each nutrienr. in 
100 lbs. of it is multiplied by the digestion coefficient for that nutrient. 
For example, 100 lbs. of dent corn contains 10.1 lbs. of crude protein 
(See Appendix Table I), of which 74 per ct. is digestible, as shown in 
Appendix Table II. Acco^'dingly, there are 10.1 X 0.74 or 7.5 lbs. of 
digestible protein in 100 lbs. of dent corn. In this manner the authors 
have computed the data in Appendix Table III, which show the 
digestible nutrients in the important American feeding stuffs. (This 
table is condensed from the exhaustive and complete table in the 
unabridged edition of "Feeds and Feeding.") For purposes of illus- 
tration, the following examples are presented on the next page. 

In Appendix Tables I and II the fiber and nitrogen-free extract are 
given in separate columns, for, tho of the same chemical composition, 
these components often differ widely in digestibility. In preparing 
tables of digestible nutrients, the digestible fiber and digestible nitro- 
gen-free extract are determined separately and the results combined 

1 In digestion trials it is commonly assumed that all matter appearing in the 
feces represents the part of the food which is actually indigestible. This is only 
approximately correct, for the feces always contain some waste from the body 
itself, such as bile residues, matter coming from the walls of the alimentary 
canal, and unabsorbed digestive juices. Also, as we have seen in the preceding 
chapter, thru the action of bacteria in the paunch and large intestine, some of 
the nutrients, especially the fiber, are broken down into gas, which has no nutri- 
tive value. Yet this is usually included in the amount considered to be diges- 
tible. Furthermore, in digestion studies the ether extract, or so-called fat, is 
extracted by ether, which dissolves not only the true fat, but also the chloro- 
phyll, wax, bile residues, and other substances which are not true fat. Due to 
this, and because the fats in feeding stuffs are usually in relatively small amount 
errors are liable to occur in finding their digestihilitv. 



MEASUKING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 



37 



Digcslihle nutrients in 100 lbs. of typical feeding stuffs, from Appendix 

Table 111 



Feeding stuff 



Concentrates — 

Dent corn 

Oats 

Wlieat 

Wheat bran 

Linseed meal, old process 

Roughages — 

Timothy hay 

Red clover hay 

Oat straw 

Kentucky bluegrass, 

green 

Corn silage 

3Iangels 



Total 

dry 

matter 




Digestible nutrients 




Crude 
protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


Total 
(inc. fat 
X2.25) 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


80.5 


7.5 


67.8 


4.6 


85.7 


90.8 


9.7 


52.1 


3.8 


70.4 


89.8 


9.2 


67.5 


1.5 


SO.l 


89.9 


12.5 


41.6 


3.0 


60.9 


90.9 


30.2 


32.6 


6.7 


77.9 


88.4 


3.0 


42.8 


1.2 


48.5 


87.1 


7.(5 


39.3 


1.8 


51.0 


88.5 


1.0 


42.6 


0.9 


45.6 


31.6 


2.3 


14.8 


0.6 


18.5 


2(j.3 


1.1 


15.0 


0.7 


17.7 


9.4 


1.0 


6.1 


0.1 


7.3 



Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 



1:10.4 
1: 6.3 
1: 7.7 
1: 3.9 
1: 1.6 



1 : 15.2 
1: 5.7 
1:44.6 

1: 7.0 
1:15.1 
1: 0.3 



under the term carbohydrates, as is done in this table. The digestible 
carbohydrates in dent corn are computed as follows: According to 
Appendix Table I, 100 lbs. of dent corn contains 2.0 lbs. of fiber, 57 
per et. of which is digestible, as shown in Appendix Table II. Like- 
wise there are 70.9 lbs. of nitrogen-free extract, 94 per et. of which is 
digestible. Multiplying in each case and adding the products, we have 
67.8 lbs., the amount of digestible carboh^'drates in 100 lbs. of 
corn. 

To show the entire amount of digestible nutrients in 100 lbs. of each 
feed, the fifth column gives the sum of the digestible crude protein and 
carbohydrates, plus the fat multiplied by 2.25, because fat will produce 
2.25 times as much heat in the body as carbohydrates or protein. 

The table shows the wide dilit'erences in the amounts of digestible 
nutrients these typical feeds furnish. Corn and wheat are high in 
digestible carbohydrates and rather low in digestible protein, while 
wheat bran and linseed meal are high in digestible protein but low in 
digestible carbohydrates. The roughages range lower in digestible 
nutrients than the concentrates. Oat straw is especially low in digest- 
ible protein, while immature and actively growing pasture grass will 
contain nearly as much digestible protein as wheat bran, if cut and 
dried to the same water content. 

Nutritive ratio. — As protein serves special uses in the body, in dis- 
cussions of feeding stuffs and rations the term nutritive ratio is used to 



38 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

show the proportion of digestible protein they contain. By nutritive 
ratio is meant the ratio which exists in any given feeding stuff between 
the digest ibk^ crude protein and the combined digestible carbohydrates 
and fat. It is determined in the following manner: The digestible 
fat in 100 lbs. of the given feed is multiplied by 2.25, because fat will 
produce 2.25 times as much heat on being burned in the body as do the 
carbohydrates. The product is then added to the digestible carbo- 
hydrates and the sum is divided by the amount of digestible crude 
• protein, the quotient being the second term of the ratio. The manner 
of computing the nutritive ratio of dent corn is as follows : 

Second term of 
Diges. fat Heat equiv. Diges. carloohy. nutritive ratio 

(4.6 X 2.25) + 07.8 _ ^^ ^ 

7. .5 
Diges. crude protein 

Nutritive ratios are expressed with the colon, thus, 1 :10.4:. The 
luitritive ratio of dent corn is therefore 1:10.4 (read 1 to 10.4) ; i.e., 
for each pound of digestible crude protein in corn there are 10.4 lbs. o£ 
digestible carbohydrates or fat equivalent. A feed or ration having 
much crude protein in proportion to carbohydrates and fat combined is 
said to have a narrow nutritive ratio; if the reverse, it has a ivide nutri- 
tive ratio. Oat straw has the extremely wide nutritive ratio of 1 :44.6, 
because of its low content of digestible protein compared with the 
carbohj^drates and fat ; oats the medium one of 1 :6.3 ; and protein-rich 
linseed meal the very narrow ratio of 1:1.6, the carbohydrates being 
less than twice the crude protein. 

When the total digestible nutrients (including fat X 2.25) in a feed 
or ration are given, as in Appendix Table III and the preceding table, 
the nutritive ratio may be computed by simply subtracting the diges- 
tible crude protein from the total digestible nutrients, and dividing 
the remainder by the digestible crude protein. For example, the 
nutritive ratio of dent corn is found thus : (85.7 — 7.5) -f- 7.5 = 10.4, 
second term of nutritive ratio. 

The term carbonaceous feed, is a convenient designation for a feed- 
ing stutf having a wide nutritive ratio. Similarly, the term nitro- 
genous feed designates a feeding stuff having a narrow nutritive ratio. 

II. The Energy op Food 

Tables of digestible nutrients tell what part of the food may be 
digested and absorbed, and thus really enter the bodj^ of the animal, 
but they throw no light on the use made of the nutrients wlien once 
they are within the body. To obtain such information the respira- 
tion apparatus and the respiration calorimeter have been devised. 



MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 39 

The respiration apparatus. — This is an air-tight chamber, ar- 
ranged with such devices that all that enters and comes from the body 
of the animal placed within it can be accurately measured and studied. 
In some cases mechanical work is performed, while in others the 
animal is at rest. Everything which passes into the animal — air, food, 
and water — is carefully measured and analyzed so that the exact in- 
take of the body is known. The air is in turn drawn from the cham- 




FiG. 13. — ^The Respiration Calorimeter at the Pennsylvania 

Station 

Calorimeter chamber in tlie corner of the room at the left. Thru tlio use of 
this apparatus much light lias been thrown on the value of difTerent classes of 
feeds. (From Armsby, Pennsylvania Institute of Animal Nutrition.) 

ber and analyzed, and the feces and urine passed by the animal are 
likewise weighed and analyzed. If the intake is larger than the outgo, 
the animal has increased in body substance; if less, it has lost. For 
example, if the feed given a steer during 24 hours contains 0.75 lb. of 
nitrogen and the feces and urine voided during the same day contain 
0.64 lb., the steer has stored 0.11 lb. of nitrogen in its body during the 
day in the form of protein tissue. Similarly, if the feed contains 



40 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

• 13 lbs. of carbo.i and the steer voids 12.25 lbs. during the day in the 
feces and urine, and in the carbon dioxid in the air breathed out of 
the lungs, then 0.75 lb. of carbon must have been stored in his body. 
Some of this will be in the protein tissues built during the day, while 
the remainder will have been stored as fat. Thru such trials scientists 
have been able, in some measure, to tell what becomes of the food 
animals consume. 

The respiration calorimeter. — A still more accurate means of 
measuring the usefulness of feeds is furnished by the respiration 
calorimeter. This is an improved and exceedingly complicated form 
of the respiration apparatus, in which not only the feces, urine, and 
gaseous waste products can be collected, but in which the heat given 
off by the animal can also be accurately measured. By means of 
this apparatus, it is possible to find exactly how much of the energy 
or fuel value of tlie feed the animal has been able to use in growth, 
fattening, or work. The first and only respiration calorimeter built 
in this country for carrying on experiments with large animals 
was erected by Armsby at the Pennsylvania Station some years 
ago. 

Fuel value of feeds. — A mature animal may be compared to a 
steam engine, in which a part of the power derived from the fuel is 
used for the operation of the engine itself, while the surplus may 
perform useful work. The steam engine derives its energy from coal 
or wood ; the animal, from the feed it consumes. Both re(|uire a 
small amount of repair material — steel, brass, etc., for the engine, and 
protein and mineral matter for the animal — but the largest demand 
with engine and mature animal alike is for fuel. It is therefore lioth 
important and interesting to consider the relative value of feeds in 
terms of the fuel they can furnish the body. 

The value of any feeding stuff as fuel for the animal depends on 
the amount of energy which it will furnish when burned. As with 
coal, the fuel value of a feed is determined by burning a weighed 
quantity of it in pure oxygen gas under pressure in an apparatus 
called a calorimeter. The heat given off is taken up by water 
surrounding the burning chamber and is measured with a ther- 
mometer, the units of measure employed being the Calorie and the 
therm. 

A Calorie (C.) is the amount of heat required to raise the tem- 
perature of 1 kilogram of water 1° C, or 1 lb. of water nearly 4° F. 
A therm (T.) is 1,000 Calories. 

The fuel value of 100 lbs. of various substances, or the heat evolved 
on burning them, is as follows: 



MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 41 

Therms 
Anthracite coal " 358.3 

Timothy hay. contain in<r 1") per ct. moisture 17n..S 

Oat straw, containing 15 per ct. moisture 171.0 

Corn meal, containing 15 per ct. moisture 170.9 

Linseed meal, containing 15 per ct. moisture 196.7 

Pure digostihlc protein 263.1 

Pure digestible carbohydrates 186.0 

Pure digestible fat 422.0 

The table shows that, on burning, 100 lbs. of anthracite coal yields 
358.3 therms, or enough heat to raise the temperature of 358,300 lbs. of 
water 4° F. One hundred pounds of timothy hay likewise burned 
yields 175.1 therms, or about half as much as coal. Linseed meal 
has a higher fuel value than corn meal because it contains more oil. 
Digestible protein yields considerably more heat than the carbo- 
hydrates, and fat over twice as much as the carbohj^drates. 

Available energy. — The fuel value of any feed does not necessarily 
measure its nutritive value to the animal, because feeds which yield 
the same number of heat units in the calorimeter may vary in the 
amount of available energy which they can furnish to the body. This 
is because: 

1. A part of the food consumed passes thru the alimentary tract 
undigested. This may be compared to bits of coal dropping thru the 
grate of the boiler unburned. 

2. The carbohydrates, especially woody fiber, undergo fermenta- 
tions in the intestines and paunch, combustible gases, especially 
methane or marsh gas, being formed, which are without fuel value to 
the animal. Even in well-constructed engines a similar loss of energj'' 
occurs in the combustible gases which escape thru the chimney with- 
out being burned. 

3. When the protein substances in the body are broken down they 
form urea, a nitrogenous compound which is excreted hy the kidneys. 
Urea has fuel value which is lost to the body. Again we may liken 
this loss to that which occurs in the boiler thru the creosote which, 
tho having fuel value, is not burned in the fire box but escapes or is 
deposited in the chimney. 

The fuel value of au}^ food which remains after deducting these 
three losses represents the available energy of the food. This is the 
portion which the animal can u.se for body purposes. 

Net energy. — The available energy of the food measures its value 
for heat production in the animal, but does not represent its true 
value for other purposes. The animal must spend a part of the total 
available energy of any food in the work of masticating and digest- 



42 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABHIDGED 



ingr it and assimilating tiie digested nutrients. The energy so 
expended tinally takes the form of heat, but is wasted so far as other 
uses are concerned. Tha> portion of the energy which remains after 
masticating, digesting, and assimilating the food is termed the net 
energy of the food. This net energy is used by the animal, first of 
all, in the work of the heart, lungs, and other internal organs, and in 
case a surplus of net energy then remains, such surplus may be used 
for producing growth, fat, milk, or wool, or in the performance of 
external work. 

The losses of energy due to mastication, digestion, and assimilation 
may be compared to the losses which would occur if a gasoline engine 
had to distil its own gasoline from crude petroleum and then get rid of 
the impurities which it could not use. 

Net energy of feeding stuffs. — Our knowledge of the net energy 
value of ditfcrent feeds has been obtained largely thru the pains- 
taking experiments conducted by Kellner in Germany and Armsby 
in this country. The following table sets forth some of their findings 
with reference to what becomes of the digestible nutrients and three 
common feeding stuffs when fed to the ox : 

Net energy from 100 lbs. of digestible nutrients and common 
feeding i stuffs 





Total 
energy 


Energy lost 




Nutrients or 
feeding stuffs 


In feces 


In 
meth- 
ane 

gas 


In 
urine 


In pro- 
duction 
proc- 
esses 


Total 
loss 


Net en 
ergy re- 
maining 


Digestible nutrieyits 

Peanut oil (fat) 

Wheat gluten (protein) . . 
Starch (carbohydrate) . . 

Gommo7i feeding stuffs 


Therms 

399.2 
263.1 
186.0 

170.9 
179.3 
171.4 


Therms 

0.0 
0,0 
0.0 

15.7 
87.7 
93.9 


Tlierms 

0.0 

0.0 

18.8 

15.9 

6.8 

15.5 


Therms 

0.0 

49.2 

0.0 

6.6 

5.5 . 
4.3 


Therms 

174.4 

118.3 

68.7 

62.0 
52.9 
47.4 


Therms 

174.4 
167.5 
87.5 • 

100.2 
1529 
161.1 


Therms 

224.8 
95.6 
98.5 

70.V 




26.4 


Wheat straw . . 


10.3 



The first column of the table shows the total amount of energy which 
would be produced on burning 100 lbs. of the digestible nutrients or 
of typical feeding stuffs. With the digestible nutrients no further 
loss occurs in the feces, but all are absorbed out of the small intestine 
and go into the body proper. The oil contained no nitrogen, and so 
no nitrogenous waste from it appeared in the urine, nor did any of it 
form methai::e (marsh) gas in the intestines. To digest and assimilate 
this 100 lbs. of oil required 174.4 therms of energy, leaving 224.8 
therms as the net energy value for growth, fattening, work, or miik 
production. 



MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OP FEEDS 43 

When 100 lbs. or 263.1 tlierms of wheat gluten, which i.s principally 
protein, was digested and absorbed into the body, a loss-: of 49.2 therms 
occurred in the urine, this loss coming from the breaking down of this: 
protein nutrient "svithin the body, or from the breaking down of body 
tissue which was replaced by new protein from this source. In all 
167.5 out of 263.1 therms in 100 lbs. of gluten were lost either in the 
urine or in carrying on the work of mastication, digestion, ai/-^ 
assimilation, leaving 95.6 therms which might be temporarily or 
permanently stored in the body. This amount of protein was avail 
able for building protein tissues or lean meat, which would be its 
highest use, or it could serve for the production of body fat, etc. 

Studying the data for the feeding stutfs, we observe tbat 100 lbs. 
of corn meal contains 170.9 therms of total energy. Of this, 15.7 
therms is lost in the undigested matter of the feces. In the methane 
gas formed in the fermentations in the paunch there w'as a loss ot 
15.9 therms. A further lo.ss of 6.6 therms occurred in the urine. 
Adding these losses together and subtracting the sum from the total 
energy value, 170.9 therms, we find that 132.7 therms remained. 
This is the amount of availahle energy in 100 lbs. of corn meal. 
Further los.ses of energy, amounting to 62.0 therms, take place thru 
the production processes; i.e., masticating the corn, digesting it and 
assimilating the digested nutrients. This brings the total loss to 
100.2 therms, leaving 70.7 therms as the net energy value of the 
100 lbs. of corn meal. The same w^eight of timothy hay furnishes 
but 26.4 therms of net energy and of wheat straw but 10.3 therms. 
Aliout one-half of the total fuel value of these feeds passes off as 
undigested matter, never having been inside the body proper. 

Such roughages as straw, hay, and corn stover, because of their 
coarse, woody character due to the fiber they contain, place much 
work on the animal in digesting them and passing the waste out of 
the body. This means an evolution of heat. Therefore where the 
animal, such as an idle horse in winter, is doing no work and needs 
little net energy, no harm but rather economy in cost of keep may 
result from living on such roughages, because the large amount of 
beat necessarily produced in the digestion and assimilation of this 
food helps keep the animal warm. On the other hand, animals at 
hard work and those producing milk or being fattened cannot profit- 
ably live chiefly on coarse forage but must have liberal allowances of 
jcncentrates, such as corn or oats, for they need large amounts of net 
c;'.iergy in their rations. 

Due to the immense amount of work re(|uired in each individual 
trial, the net energy values have as yet been determined for only a 
small number of feeds. Thus, as we shall see in Chapter VIII, ou^ 



44 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABKIDGED 

present knowledge of the net energy value of feeds is far from com- 
plete. However, tho many of the values are not exact and final, they 
are of great value in showing approximately what portions of the 
food consumed by animals are lost at each step in its progress thru 
the body, and what part is finally available for growth, fattening, 
work, or milk production. The marvel is that scientists have been 
able to go so far in solving these most complicated problems. 

III. Factors Influencing the Nutritive Value of Feeds 

Variations in composition of feeding stuffs. — The figures given in 
Appendix Tal)le I for the composition of any feed are in most 
instances averages of all analyses of normal samples of that feed 
which have been reported by the various stations. It is obviously 
important to learn what variations from these averages may be 
expected in the case of samples of a given feed from different sections 
of the country, grown in dift'erent years, or when gathered at different 
stages of maturity. The composition of a crop may be influenced to 
a limited extent by the amount of available plant food in the soil on 
which the crop is grown. Climate and stage of maturity are, how- 
ever, the most important factors affecting the composition of a given 
feed. Of the cereals, wheat is the most variable in composition, its 
protein content being profoundly infinenced by climate. While the 
average crude protein content of wheat from the northern plains 
states is 13.5 per ct., wheat from the Atlantic states contains only 11.7 
per ct. and that from the Pacific states but 9.9 per ct. crude protein. 
Climate has little effect on the chemical composition of corn, providing 
the crop matures. 

The roughages are even more variable in composition than the 
cereals, owing to the fact that, besides climate, their composition is 
influenced by the stage of maturity, the manner of curing, and the 
moisture content. Analyses of corn fodder and corn stover show a 
water content ranging from over 50 per ct. in field-cured material in 
wet seasons down to 10 per ct. or less in arid regions or where cured 
under cover in a dry season. To show the difference in nutritive 
value of these extremes it may be stated that corn fodder or stover 
containing 10 per ct. water will carry 80 per ct. more nutrients per 
100 lbs. than a sample of the same forage containing 50 per ct. water! 
To overcome this error so far as possible, separate averages are given 
for very dry and for ordinary field-cured samples of these feeds in 
Appendix Tallin T. 

When plants are immature a much larger pei'contage of the dry 
matter consists of protein than when they are mature. For example, 
dried alfalfa from plants cut when three inches high may contain over 



MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 45 

30 per ct. crude protein, while the dry haj^ from alfalfa cut when in 
bloom will contain only half as much. On the other hand, immature 
plants are more watery, and thus contain less total digestible nutrients. 

It is shown in later chapters that as the grasses and legumes mature 
tlieir content of fiber materially increases, and as a consequence the 
feed becomes less digestible and usually of lower value. However, 
the large accumulation of starch which occurs in the corn plant as it 
ripens gives the more mature form of that plant a greater total feed- 
ing value. 

Influence of preparation of feed. — It is often assumed that by 
cutting, grinding, and cooking feed much labor is saved the animal, 
to the advantage of the feeder. This idea is based on the theory that 
the less work the animal does in mastication and digestion the larger 
the net production of work, flesh, or milk. On the contrary, we 
know that the muscles of the body do not grow strong thru idleness, 
and that work and activity are necessary to bodily health, growth, 
and strength. Likewise, the organs of mastication and digestion 
should be kept working at their normal capacity. When cutting, 
grinding, cooking, or pulpi]ig brings more satisfaction to fattening 
animals soon to be slaughtered, and causes them to consume heavier 
rations, such preparation may pay, as it may also with exceptionally 
hard-worked animals that have but limited time for taking their 
rations. Ordinarily, making feeds fine and soft so they may be 
swallowed with little chewing not only fails to pay for the cost of 
suL-h preparation but may actually lower the value of the feed. The 
economy of the different methods of preparing feed for each class of 
stock is discussed in detail in the respective cha])ters of Part III, 
but a summary of these conclusions will be helpful in showing the 
principles which should govern the feeder in deciding how far to 
employ such methods of preparation. 

Grinding or crushing grain. — Grinding, crushing, or rolling grain 
increases the digestibility only when animals fail to masticate the 
whole grain. In fact, grinding grain so finely that it is bolted with 
little chewnng may sometimes decrease the digestibility because of 
imperfect mixture with the saliva. For all animals, such hard grains 
as bald bailey or rice should be ground, and for all classes of animals, 
except perhaps sheep, small seeds, such as millet, grain from the 
sorghums, or weed seeds, should ordinarily be ground. For animals 
with poor teeth or for young animals before their teeth are well 
developed, grinding grain in general is advisable. Ordinarily, horses 
can grind their own oats and corn, and idle horses should always 
do so. For horses which are hard-worked and spend much of their 
time away from the stable the grain may be ground and mixed with 



46 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

-a small allowance of moistened chaffed hay. A cow yielding a larfre 
flow of milk is a hard worked animal, and her grain should usually 
be ground. Where jiigs follow fattening cattle to gather up any 
grain which escapes mastication and digestion there is no advantage 
in grinding corn or even shelling it, except perhaps toward the close 
of the feeding period when the cattle may be induced to eat more by 
grinding. Where no pigs run with cattle, it is usually economical to 
grind or crush the corn before feeding. Except in the case of small 
or hard seeds, sheep with good teeth should grind their own grain. 
While it pays to grind the small grains for pigs, there is no appreciable 
advantage in grinding corn for pigs weighing 150 lbs. or less. For 
older animals such preparation may sometimes be profitable. 

Cutting or chaffing forage,^ — I'assing such coarse forages as corn 
or the sorghums thru a feed cutter or shredder is usually profitable, 
not because the portions consumed are digested more completely but 
because the animals waste less of the feed and the cut forage is more 
convenient to handle. Whether it will pay to cut or grind hay will 
depend on the price, on the quality of the hay, and the cost of pre- 
paration. When hay is cheap, there is little gain in thus prepar- 
ing good hay which will otherwise be eaten with little waste, tho 
it may pay to cut poor hay so that it will be eaten moce completely. 
With hay at present prices, it is becoming more profitable to cvit hay 
for stock. Hay may be cut sufficiently fine for most purposes at 
low cost on the farm by means of a silage cutter equipped with an 
alfalfa sci-ecn. Cutting alfalfa hay is now practiced l)y nuuiy ex- 
tensive feeders in the western states, especially for fcittening steers 
and lambs. The value of jdfalfa meal is discussed on l*age 184. 

Soaking feed. — When grain with hard or small kernels can not be 
conveniently ground or crushed, it should be softened by soaking 
before feeding, care being taken that the meal does not become stale 
by long standing. 

Cooking feed. — Only 60 years ago scientists believed that cooking 
feed greatly increased its value for stock. Numerous careful trials 
have since shown that, in general, cooking either grain or roughage 
does not increase its digestibility or nutritive value, and may even 
decrease the digestibility of the protein. While cooking feed for 
cattle was abandoned years ago, it is still practiced to some extent 
for swine. Fortunately, this (juestion has also been settled by nu- 
merous tests at several experiment stations. These showed conclu- 
sively that, rather than there being a gain, there was in most cases an 
actual loss from cooking. The only exceptions are a few feeds, such 
as potatoes and field beans, which can be successfully fed to pigs 
only after being cooked. When such small and hard grains as wheat 



MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 47 

and rice can not be ground they should be cooked or soaked. jMusty 
hay and corn fodder are made more palatable and safe by steaming. 
In winter it is often advantageous to give warm feed to pigs, but this is 
entirely different from cooking the feed. 

Curing and ensiling forage. — If green forage is cured without 
waste and in a manner to prevent fermentation, the mere drying does 
not lower its digestibility. Ordinarily, however, in curing forage 
muoh of the finer and more nutritious parts is wasted, and dews, rain, 
and fermentations effect changes which lower digestibility. The 
large amount of work done in masticating dry forage and passing it 
thru the alimentary tract is another reason why green forage may 
give better results and hence appear more digestible than dry forage. 
The long storage of fodders, even under favorable conditiors, 
decreases both their digestibility and palatability. 

Ensiling green forage tends to decrease the digestibility. The 
exceedingly favorable results from silage feeding must therefore be 
due to the palatability of the silage, its beneficial effect on the health 
of the animals, and to the fact that less feed is wasted than when 
dry fodder is used. 

Influence of amount of feed eaten on digestibility. — Animals tend 
to digest their food somewhat more completely when given a main- 
tenance ration than when on full feed. This may be due to the more 
rapid movement of the food thru the digestive tract or to a less com- 
plete absorption of the digested nutrients when present in large 
amount. Under normal conditions, in feeding farm animals for the 
l)roduetion of meat, milk, or work, other economic factors, which will 
be treated in later chapters, more than offset the slightly better utili- 
zation of feed when a scant ration is fed. 

Influence of proportion of the different nutrients. — The addition 
of a large quantit}^ of easily digested carbohydrates, such as sugar 
and starch, to a ration containing much roughage may reduce the 
digestibility of its crude protein, fiber, and nitrogen-free extract. 
Such depression of digestibility occurs with ruminants when less than 
1 part of digestible crude protein is present to every 8 parts of 
digestible non-nitrogenous nutrients (carbohydrates plus fat X 2.25). 
AVith swine the nutritive ratio may be wider before the digestibility is 
affected. An explanation offered for this lessened digestibility is that 
when a large proportion of soluble or easily digested carbohydrates 
is fed, the bacteria in the digestive tract which normally decompose 
cellulose to secure food then attack instead the more readil}^ available 
.sugars and starch. Not only is the digesti])ility of the cellulose, or 
fiber, consequently lowered, but also that of the crude protein and 
nitrogen-free extract, for the unattached cellulose cell walls protect 



48 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

the proteins and carbohydrates contained therein from the action of 
the digestive juices. This depression does not occur when nitrog- 
enous feeds, such as oil meal, are added along with the starch or 
sugar, thus preserving the balance between protein and non- 
nitrogenous nutrients. It is assumed that this is due to a stimula- 
tion of the bacteria by the addition of more protein, so that, invig- 
orated, they attack the fiber of the food again. 

Adding nitrogenous feeds to roughages, such as hay, straw, etc., does 
not increase the digestibility of the roughage. Neither does the addi- 
tion of fat to a ration increase the digestibility of the other con- 
stituents. When too much fat is fed it may cause digestive disturb- 
ance. Salt does not affect digestion, tho it nuiy cause animals to 
eat more food and may improve nutrition. 

Class of animal, age, breed, and miscellaneous factors. — Cattle 
and sheep digest concentrates and good quality roughage equally 
well, but cattle digest poor roughage, such as straw, somewhat better 
than sheep. Horses and pigs digest fiber less completely than do rumi- 
nants. While there is little difference in the digestibility of con- 
centrates by these animals, horses cannot digest roughages as comr 
pletely as do cattle or sheep, and pigs utilize roughages still less 
efficiently. 

In general, age does not, in itself, influence digestibility, tho young 
farm animals cannot utilize much roughage until their digestive tracts 
are developed. The digestion of old animals is often indirectly 
injured by poor teeth, which make the proper mastication of their 
food impossible. Breed has no influence upon digestibilit}-. Animals 
may, however, show considerable difference, one from another, in 
their ability to digest the same ration, tho ordinarily the digestibility 
of a given ration by different animals of the same race will not vary 
more than 3 to 4 per ct. 

Neither the frequency of feeding, the time of watering, nor the 
amount of water drunk appears to influence digestibility. ]\Ioderate 
exercise tends to increase digestibility, but excessive work lowers it. 

The flow of saliva and the other digestive juices is checked by fright. 
On the other hand, kind treatment and palatability of food should 
favorably influence dig-estion. Under skillful care animals show 
remarkable relish for their food, and it is reasonable to conclude that 
better digestion results. 

Summary. — The preceding discussions make it evident that average 
figures for the composition of any feeding stuff are but approximately 
correct when applied to a particular lot of the feed. This likewise 
applies to the expression of its nutritive value, whether stated in terras 
of digestible nutrients or net energy. In other words, different lots 



MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 49 

of any feeding stuff vary in feeding value, the same as different 
samples of coal vary in fuel value. Owing to the expense of obtaining 
analj^ses it is out of the question for any but the most extensive feeders 
to have their particular feeds analyzed, just as only the large manu- 
facturer can afford to have samples of coal analj'zed to determine their 
fuel value before purchasing. With the cereals and the roughages 
the general feeder must, therefore, rely on that average given in tables 
of digestible nutrients or net energy which corresponds most closely 
in his judgment to the feed at hand. In purchasing commercial con- 
centrates, sold in vast quantities everywhere, it is now fortunately 
possible in most sections of the country to secure standard brands, 
wiiose composition is fully guaranteed bv the manufacturer. (Chap- 
ter XT.) 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are digestion coefficients and how are they found in a digestion trial? 

2. In a digestion trial a steer ate in one day 25 lbs. of red clover hay con- 
taining Sfi.4 per ct. dry matter, 12.5 per ct. crude protein, 25.2 ptr ct. fiber, 38.3 
per ct. nitrogen-free e.xtract, and 3.3 per ct. fat. During tlie same day he voided 
in llie feces 8.!) lbs. dry matter, 13 Ibfi onule protein, 2.!) lbs. fiber, 3.3 lbs. nitro- 
gen-free extract, and 0.4 lb. fat. Find the digestion coefficients for dry matter 
and the various nutrients. 

3. Define nutritive ratio and show how it is calculated. 

4. Describe a respiration ap^«aia':is. 

5. Define availal)le energy and net energy. 

G. Thru what different means is energy lost when a cow eats corn meal? 

7. Why may considerable straw be fed advantageously to an idle horse hut not 
<o one at hard work? 

8. What factors influence the composition of feeds? 

0. Discuss the value for stock of (a) grinding grain, (b) cutting hay, (c) 
soaking feed, (d) cooking feed. 

10. How is tlie value of forage affected by curing; by ensiling? 

11. Wliat factors affect the digestibility of feeds? 



CHAPTER IV 

MAINTAINING FARM ANIMALS 

I. Requirements for Body Fuel 

Farm animals are given food in order that tliey may convert it 
into useful products, like meat, milk, wool, and work. Just as a 
factory must be supplied with power to keep the machinery' in motion 
before any product can be turned out, to make continued production 
possible with the animal enough food must first be provided to main- 
tain all necessary life processes. This amount of food, which is 
required merely to support the animal when doing no work and yield- 
ing no material product, is called the maintenance ration. When an 
animal is receiving a maintenance ration its body w\\\ neither gain 
nor lose i)rotein, fat, or mineral matter. On the average, fully one- 
half of the feed consumed by farm ;mimals is used simply for main- 
tenance, only the remaining half b«ing turned into useful products. 
Thus it is highly important to und-rstan-l the principles governing 
the maintenance retiuirements of farm animals. 

To maintain an animal at rest without losing or gaining in weight, 
sufficient food must l)e suj^plied to fnrnisli: (1) Fuel to maintain 
tlie body Icniiieratnre ; (2) energy to carry on such vital functions as 
the work of the heart, lungs, etc.; (•'{) protein to rej^air the small 
daily waste of nitrogenous tissues; (4) mineral mattei' to replace the 
snudl but continuous loss of these nutrients; (5) vitamines, recently 
discovered, mysterious substances which are necessary for health. 

Maintaining the body temperature. — The body temperature of the 
larger farm animals ranges from 98.4° to 105.8° F. To keep the 
body at these high temperatures, heat must be continuously produced 
within it. We have seen that, especially with ruminants, much heat 
is generated in the digestive tract by the breaking down of cellulose 
and other plant compounds. The remainder is produced in the tissues 
of the body in the following manner: Thru breathing, the oxygen 
of the air is brought to the blood. Floating in the blood stream, are 
myriads of microscopic bodies called red blood corpuscles, which owe 
their color to hemoglobin, an iron-containing protein. This hemo- 
glol)in absorbs the oxygen and holds it loosely. As the blood, now 
laden with oxygen, passes thru the capillary system, it gives up the 
oxygen to the living body cells. Here, in some marvellous manner 

50 



MAINTAINING FARM ANIMALS 51 

some of the body initrieiits are oxidized, or slowly burned, with the 
result that heat is formed. Unlike the burning of fuel in a stove, 
the oxidations in the body take place at a comparatively low tem^ 
perature. As a result of these oxidations, where there were before 
glucose, fats, and proteins in the tissues, there now remain carbonic 
acid gas, water, and urea. The latter is the form in which the nitrog- 
enous waste of the hody, resulting from the breaking down of protein 
is chiefly excreted. 

As shown in the preceding chapter, all the energy used up in the 
various forms of internal work of the body is finally changed to heat. 
Tho this energy is lost so far as useful production is concerned, the 
heat formed helps to maintain the body temperature. The a.nount of 
heat so produced is considerable. Even with such an easily digested 
feed as corn, over one-third of the total energy which the digestible 
nutrients furnish is converted into heat in the work of masticating, 
digesting, and utilizing it. With roughages like hay and straw the 
proportion is much larger. However, in the case of animals exercis- 
ing normally the larger part of the body heat is produced in the 
muscular tissues, since all muscular contraction is caused by the oxida- 
tion, or burning, of nutrients in the muscles. Even when the 
muscles are not actively contracting, some heat is being generated in 
them. 

Heat regulation. — Not only must heat be continuously produced in 
the body, but tlie temperature must be kept constant under varying 
external conditions and with supjilies of food differing from day to 
day in amount and heat producing power. This is done by the 
unconscious regulation of both the production and the loss of heat. 
The production of heat is governed by decreasing or increasing the 
oxidations going on in the body tissues. On cold days, for example, 
we are inclined to eat more heartily and walk more briskly than in 
warm weather, "When chilled, there is also an involuntary rise in 
heat production, brought about thru a "shivering" of the muscles. 
The loss of heat from the body is regulated in part by varying the 
circulation of the blood near the surface of the bod3^ When the 
temperature of the body is too high, more blood is pumped to the 
surface, where some of the heat passes off into the air. The produc- 
tion of sweat and the giving off of water vapor from the lungs are 
also important means of governing the loss of heat. In addition, the 
clothing of man and the thick skin, hair, wool, and feathers of animals 
prevent too rapid loss of heat. 

Heat and energy required for maintenance. — In maintaining a 
mature animal at rest a certain amount of net energy must be fur- 
nished by the feed to carry oji the internal work of the body. How- 



52 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



ever, the greater part of the food is required merely as fuel to keep up 
the body temperature. Hence, except for the pig, maintenance rations 
for the larger farm animals may consist largely of cheap roughages, 
such as hay and straw, which furnish abundant heat but do not yield 
much net energy. This has great practical importance, for it shows 
why idle horses and stock cattle can be carried tliru the winter on 
roughage alone, without grain. 

It is commonly assumed in computing rations that the amount of 
feed required to maintain an animal depends on its body weight. 




Fig. 14. — Heavily-fed Animals Ordinarily Have an Excess of Heat 

Heavily-fed fattenins steers tlirive best with no shelter except an open shed, 
but animals being carried thru the winter on scanty rations need warmer quar- 
ters. (From Prairie Farmei:) 



Strictly speaking, however, the maintenance requirement depends not 
on the live weight, but on the body surface. This is due to the fact 
that the loss of heat from the body is proportional to the body sur- 
face and not to its weight. A 1,600-1 b. steer does not have twice the 
body surface of an 800-lb. one, and hence will not require twice as 
much feed for maintenance. Individual animals of the same kind 
and size may also differ somewhat in their requirements. For 
example, a quiet animal uses up less body fuel than a nervous, active 
one. Due chiefly to increased muscular action, an animal when stand- 



I MAINTAINING FAKM ANIMALS 53 

ing may produce 30 per ct. more heat than when lying down. 
Exposure to cold winds, especially with animals having scanty coats, 
increases the need for body fuel. Animals with coats wet by rain or 
snow lose still more heat from their bodies, for the cold water must be 
warmed and evaporated by heat produced thru the burning of food in 
the body. With heavily-fed fattening animals this may not cause 
any waste of food nutrients, for much more heat is being produced in 
the mastication, digestion, and assimilation of their heavy rations 
than is ordinarily needed to warm the body. On the other hand, 
animals being carried thru the winter on scanty rations have no such 
excess of heat, and hence much feed may often be saved by protecting 
them from cold winds and storms. 

II. Requirements for Protein 

Protein required for maintenance. — The demands of the body foi 
fuel and energy can be met thru feeding carbohydrates and fat. 
However, an abundant supply of these nutrients alone will not pre- 
vent starvation, for there must also be a supply of protein to replace 
that lost each day from the body ; that is, to repair the protein tissues. 
In view of the high cost and relative scarcity of protein in feeding 
stuffs, it is important to know the smallest amount of this nutrient 
which will maintain animals in good health. When plenty of car])o- 
hydrates and fat were supplied to serve as body fuel, animals have 
been maintained for long periods on surprisingly small amounts of 
protein. For example, at the Pennsylvania Station^ Armsby main- 
tained steers on only 0.4 to 0.6 lb. of digestible protein daily per 
1,000 lbs. live w^eight without harm. It is not well, however, to 
supply only the theoretical minimum of protein to animals for long 
periods, t^ome allowance must be made for the difference in com- 
position of feeding stuff's and the varying abilities of animals to 
digest the same feeds. We should further remember that the various 
proteins differ in composition and that some are so unbalanced as to 
have but low value for repairing body tissues. In numerous experi- 
ments animals have never been successfully maintained on gelatin, a 
protein which lacks two amino acids and contains only small amounts 
of others. Besides supplying protein to replace the daily waste from 
the tissues and organs of the body, there should be provision for the 
growth of the hair, hoofs, and wool — all of a protein nature. In gen- 
eral, protein is a cell stimulant and a supply somewhat above the 
minimum promotes the health of the animal. 

The wisdom of not limiting the protein supply to the theoretical 
minimum for long periods has been shown by the experience of 

1 Principles of Animal Nutrition, 1903, p. 142. 



54 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

Haecker of the ]\Iinnesota Station. ^ He found that dairy cows under 
good fare and otherwise liberal feeding contiiuied a good flow of milk 
for long periods on a very small allowance of crude protein. After 
some years of such feeding, however, the vitality of these cows was so 
undermined that they became physical wrecks long before their time. 
Even when sufficient protein is fed to insure good health, the amount 
required to maintain mature resting animals is not large compared 
with the need for carboh^'drates and fat for body fuel. The main- 
tenance rations for such animals may therefore have a relatively wide 
nutritive ratio. For example, rations for maintaining full-grown 
steers may have as wide a nutritive ratio as 1:10 or even 1:16 and 
for horses as wide as 1:8 or 1:9. (See Appendix Table Y.) 

When more protein is fed than is needed to repair the tissues of the 
body, the nitrogen is split off th^i excess portion and excreted in the 
urine. The non-nitrogenous part which remains is not wasted, but 
may be used for body fuel just as are carbohydrates and fat, or it may 
be changed into glucose and possibl}^ finally stored as fat in the 
body. 

Can amids replace protein? — Whether the group of nitrogenous 
compounds, more simple than the proteins, which are included under 
the term amids (see Page 10), can serve the same purpose in the 
body as the true proteins, is still a disputed rpiestion. Numerous 
trials have shown that animals cannot live on a single amid as the 
sole source of nitrogen. However, it is reasonable to believe that 
when a mixture of amids in a feeding stuff contains all the different 
amino acids (the protein building-stones) needed to form body pro- 
tein, these amids can then be used in the same manner as true protein 
for the repair of body tissues and for the formation of new protein 
tissue. This belief is upheld by the following: Nearly half the 
nitrogen in corn silage and only about 15 per ct. of that in dried corn 
forage is in amid form. Yet, based on the dry matter content, corn 
silage is somewhat more valuable than dry corn forage as a feed for 
dairy cows, which require a liberal supply of crude protein. Like- 
wise, the amids are abundant in grass, roots, and silage, which are 
especially useful for growing and pregnant animals and for those 
producing milk or wool — all of which are in particular need of abun- 
dant protein. 

ITT. Requirements for IMineral ]\Iatter 

Importance of mineral matter. — The necessity for an ample supply 
of mineral matter is shown ])y feeding animals rations fivcd as far 
as possible from it. Even tho the rations contain an abundance of 

2 Minn. Buls. 71. 79. 140. 



MAINTAINING FARM ANIMALS 55 

protein, carbohydrates, and fat, the animals Mill die thru mineral 
starvation, and generally the end will come more quickly than if no 
food at all is given. jMineral matter is found in all the vital parts of 
the body. The life centers of all the cells are rich in phosphorus 
and the skeleton is largely composed of calcium (lime) combined with 
phosphorus. As we have seen, the power of the blood to carry oxygen 
is due to hemoglobin, an iron-protein compound in the red blood 
corpuscles. In the stomach, the pepsin acts only in the presence of 
hydrochloric acid, a mineral compound derived from mineral salts 
in the blood. 

A simple experiment often performed in the laboratory will illus- 
trate the manner in which mineral salts control life processes. If the 
heart, still beating-, is removed from a frog and placed in a solution 
of pure sodium chlorid (connuon salt), its beats soon fade out. Now, 
if a small amount of a calcium salt (lime) be added to the solution, 
the heart will at once begin to beat again, and will continue in rhyth- 
mical contraction for several hours. Unless a small amount of a potas- 
sium salt is likewise added, the beat will not, however, be normal, the 
heart failing to relax quickly and completely enough after each con- 
traction. The relaxations will become more and more feeble, until 
the heart stops in a contracted state. Not only must potassium be 
present, but there uuist be a correct proportion between the amounts 
of calcium and potassium. If too much pot.^ssium is added, the heart 
will fail to contract properly and finally will again stop beating, but 
this time in a state of complete relaxation. 

The common feeding stuffs contain all the necessarj'- mineral salts, 
at least in small amounts. As a rule, the roughages, except some of 
the straws, are much richer than the grains in mineral matter. 
IMoreover, the body is probably able to use manj'- of the mineral com- 
pounds over and over again, taking them back again into the circula- 
tion after having been used. Therefore, for animals which have 
finished their growth, the usual rations containing roughage furnish 
sufificient mineral matter, except common salt. As shown later, it is 
advisable to supply farm animals common salt in addition to that in 
their feed. Since large amounts of calcium (lime) and phosphorus 
are needed to build the skeleton, these elements may fall short in 
rations for young animals. 

Calcium and phosphorus. — Over 90 per ct. of the mineral matter 
in the skeleton consists of calcium and phosphorus. When the supply 
(»f either of these is low in the feed, the skeleton acts as a storehouse, 
doling out these mineral elements so that the life processes of the body 
may continue normally for a time. But such withdrawal of mineral 
matter from the bones makes them porous and brittle. Indeed, in 



56 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



certain localities where the hay and other roughages are unusually 
low in calcium and phospliorus, due to the povert}^ of the soil in these 
elements, the bones of farm animals may become so brittle that they 
break with surprising ease. Growing animals, whose bones are 
rapidly increasing in size, suffer from a lack of these mineral elements 
sooner than mature animals. Because they are fed chiefly on the 
cereal grains, which are low in calcium, pigs fail to receive enough 
calcium more often than do calves, colts and lambs, which eat hay 
and other roughage as well. Of grown animals, those carr^ying their 
young or producing- a heavy yield of milk are most apt to suffer from 
a lack of calcium or phosphorus. 




Fig. 15. — Farm Animals Need an Ample Supply of ]\Iineral 

i\lATTER 

Over no per ct. of the mineral matter in tlie skeleton consists of caleiimi and 
phospliorus. In certain rations tlie amount of these mineral elements may be iu- 
suflicient for healtli. (From Ellenberger.) 



Fortunately, roughage from the legumes, such as clover, alfalfa, 
and cowpea ha}^, is rich in phosphorus and especially in calcium. 
Thus animals fed legume hay commonly receive plenty of these 
mineral elements. Straw, chaff, the various root crops, molasses, and 
the cereals and their by-products, such as bran or middlings, are 
generally low in calcium. Beet pulp, potatoes, molasses, straw, and 
chaff are low in phosphorus, while the cereals and brans, oil cakes, 
and slaughter-house and fish waste carry it in abundance. AVhen 
there is danger of a deficiency of either calcium or phosphorus, it is 



MAINTAINING FARM ANIMALS 57 

wise to add a supply to the ration. Calcium may be furnished 
cheaply in ground limestone or wood ashes, and both calcium and 
phosphorus in ground rock phosphate, ground bone, or bone ash. As 
shown in Chapter XXVII, it is wise to keep a supply of mineral 
matter before pigs at all times, especially when confined to pens. 

Common salt. — In spite of the well-known hunger of herbivorous 
animals for salt, practical men have differed as to the necessity or 
advantage of adding it to the ration. It is now agreed, however, that 
salt should be supplied regularly to farm animals. It not only serves 
as a spice to whet the appetite and add to the palatability of many 
feeds, but it also stimulates the digestive glands and prevents digestive 
disturbances. At least for cows in milk, a supply of salt in addition 
to that contained in the feed is absolutely necessary for health. This 
was shown in experiments by Babcock and Carlyle at the Wisconsin 
Station ^ in which dairy cows, well fed otherwise, were given no salt 
for periods as long as a year. After varying^lengths of time, a com- 
plete breakdown occurred, marked by loss of appetite, lusterless eyes, 
a rough coat, and a rapid decline in body weight and milk yield. 
When salt was supplied, recovery was rapid. 

Animals allowed free access to salt or supplied with it at frequent 
and regular intervals will take only enough to meet the needs of the 
body. Animals that have not been supplied with salt for some time 
and are then allowed all they will eat, may consume too much. This 
creates an abnormal thirst and causes excessive drinking, which may 
lead to digestive disturbances. Cows in milk and sheep show the 
greatest need of salt, horses, fattening cattle, dry cows, and stock 
cattle require less, and pigs but little. The needs of each class of 
farm animals for salt are discussed in the respective chapters of 
Part III. 

IV. Additional Requirements of Animals 

We have thus far considered in detail only the requirements of 
farm animals for crude protein, carbohydrates, fat and mineral 
matter. However, just as vital as the demands for fuel and rei)air 
material, wliicli are iix-t hy these nutrients, is the need for air, water, 
and vitamines. 

Air. — While animals survive starvation for considerable periods, 
lack of air brings immediate death, since a continuous supply of 
oxygen is retiuired for all vital processes. Each hour a cow breathes 
in about 117 cubic feet of air, making over 2,800 cubic feet each 
24 hours. For health, a stable where animals are confined should 
not contain more than 3.3 per ct. of air which has been previously 

3 Wis. Rpt. 1905. 



58 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

breathed. To provide cows with air of this, purity, there shoukl pasa 
into the stable for eaeli cow not less than 85,000 cubic feet of air each 
"24 hours. These fij^ures show the nect'ssity of providing a good 
system of ventilation for animals confined in closeil stables, as are 
horses and dairy cattle during the winter in the northern states. 

Water. — Animals can live much longer without solid food than 
without water. An abundant suppl}- of water is necessary for all the 
vital processes of the bod}', such as the digestion and absorption of 
food nutrients and the removal of waste from the body. As already 
shown, water is also an agent in regulating the body temperature, 
both thru the vapor given otf by the lungs and the evaporation of 
sweat from the surface of the body. 

Scientists agree that farm animals should have all the water they 
will drink at regular intervals, for they do not take it in excess unless 
they are forced to live on watery foods or are given salt irregularly. 
The water for stock must be fresh and pure to avoid disease. All 
water drunk must be raised to the temperature of the body, thus con- 
sjuming heat. Warming cold water taken into the body does not 
necessarily mean that more food must be burned, for animals pro- 
duce a large amount of heat in the work of digesting food and con- 
verting the digested matter into body products or work. Due to this, 
many animals create an excess of body heat. Comfortably housed and 
well-fed steers and dairy cattle ma.v produce more heat thru this means 
than is needed to warm their bodies and the excess may go to warm 
the water they drink, so that no food is directly burned for that 
purpose. However, when animals are watered but once a day they 
then drink a large amount. In winter if the water is cold this makes 
a sudden demand for a large amount of heat, which may exceed the 
amount of excess heat being produced in the body. Food must then 
be burned simply to warm the water, even tho thereafter an excess of 
heat may be produced in the body. For this reason, feed may be 
saved by watering frequently animals undulj^ exposed to cold and 
those fed scanty rations, or else by warming the Avater. During 
severe winter weather cows producing a heavy yield of milk need more 
water than they are apt to drink if it is supplied too cold. Under 
such conditions their water should be warmed. 

Vitamines. — Within the past few years investigators have made 
some of the most important discoveries in the whole field of animal 
nutrition. They have found that the classes of nutrients previously 
discussed — proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and mineral matter — are not 
all that is necessary to make a satisfactory ration. Just as essential 
as these nutrients are certain compounds called ''vitamines," the 



MAIXTAIXIXG FARM ANIMALS 5!) 

composition of which is unknown. Thus far, the existence of 3 differ- 
ent vitaniines has been discovered: (1) the fat-soluble vitamine; 
(2) the water-soluble vitamine; and (3) the vitamine which pre- 
vents scurvy. 

It has been found that when animals are fed upon feeds which 
have been freed irom fatty substances thej' fail to grow or thrive and 
eventually die. If such fats as lard, olive oil, or commercial cotton- 
seed oil are added to the ration no improvement results, but if butter- 
fat, milk, egg fat. or kidney fat is supplied the diet is made complete 
and normal growth is resumed. These fats contain the fat-soiuhle 




Fig. 16. — Commonly Unappreciated Substances Are Needed for 

Growth 

Doth rats were fed "halaiiced rations" containing an ahundanee of suitable pro- 
tein and mineial water. Tlie rat on the riglit, given butter fat in addition, grew 
tliriftily, whih' the one on the left, fed cottonseed oil, which lacks the mysterious 
substance present in butter fat, failed to grow. ( From .McCollum, Wisconsin 
Station.) 

vit(U)iine, which is necessary for life. The cereals are generall}'- poor 
in this vitamine, as are also Irish potatoes, mangels, and sugar beets. 
]Most fortunately for economical stock feeding, the leafy parts of 
l)lants are rich in this vitamine. Because of this, farm animals con- 
suming plenty of good roughage, such as legume hay, will undoubt- 
edly secure plenty of it. There may perhaps in some cases be a 
lack of it with pigs reared without pasture or legume hay and with 
calves raised on milk substitutes. Yellow colored roots, such as car- 
rots and sweet potatoes, are rich in the vitamine, and it has been 
found recently that yellow corn contains much more than white 
corn. 



GO FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

The second vitaminc is soluble in water, and is therefore called 
the ivater-soluble vitamine. When there is an insufficient amount 
of this vitamine in the food, the disease known as beri-beri is pro- 
duced. This malady seriously affects humans, causing general weak- 
ness and even paralysis, in districts of the Orient where the in- 
habitants live mainly on polished rice. When unpolished rice, carry- 
ing the germ and part of the husk, is eaten instead, this disease docs 
not occur. Animals affected with this disease are cured by giving 
them the water extract of i-ice germ or of otlier foods rich in the 
water-soluble vitamine. An abundance of this vitamine has been 
found in most ordinary foods, such as the cereals and other seeds, 
milk, eggs, and the leafy portions of plants. It is not destroyed by 
drying or exposure to light. Therefore all ordinary rations for 
live stock will contain an ample supply of the water-soluble vitamine. 

The third vitamine, which prevents scurvy, is of little or no 
importance for farm animals, except possibly swine. Farm animals do 
not require it or need so little that all usual rations furnish plenty. 
Humans, monkeys, and guinea pigs must be furnished this vitamine, 
or scurvy will result. It is supplied by milk and fresh fruits, 
vegetables, and meat, but is low in the cereals. Long cooking or drying 
at high temperatures destroys it. 

Our knowledge of vitamines is yet too fragmentary for us to pre- 
dict to what extent further studies on these interesting compounds 
may make it possible to devise more efficieiit rations for stock. 

Feeding concentrates alone to animals. — By reason of their high 
ability to digest coarsie roughage, ruminants are especially adapted to 
convert the coarse plant materials of no value for human food into 
useful products. Tho ordinai'ily it would be unprofitable to feed 
such animals solely on concentrates, the question whether they can 
be so maintained is of scientific interest. Dry dairy cows have been 
kept thru the winter in fair condition on corn meal with no hay. At 
first they were restless, but soon quieted down and rumination, or 
chewing the cud, ceased. A 2-year-old steer was fed for nearly eight 
months exclusively on grain, and sheep are not infrequently fed only 
grain and roots. We may therefore conclude that mature ruminants 
can be maintained for considerable periods, if not indefinitely, on 
concentrates alone. With, young ruminants Natui'c is less yielding, 
for all attempts to raise calves on milk and grain without hay or other 
roughage have ended in failure. Apparently some coarse feed is 
needed to fill the first three stomachs so they may develop properly. 

Efforts to keep horses on oats alone were unsuccessful, the horses 
refusing the oats after a few days. Evidently horses cannot live on 



MAINTAINIXG FARM ANIMALS 



61 



concentrates alone, even oats with their straw-like hulls. On the other 
liand, pijjs liave been raised on milk alone, tlio 1liis is not wise, as 
ihey nia>' heeonie decidedly mil lii'it'l y without some bulky feed. 

Succulent feeds. — Numerous seientilie trials and common farm 
experience have abundantly demonstrated the value of adding succu- 
lent feeds to the rations of farm animals. The beneficial effects of 
succulence, whether supplied as pasturage, silage, soilage, or roots, 
are many. Just as our own appetites are stimulated by fruits and 




Fig. 17. — Comfortable Quarters, Sunny and "Well-ventilated, In- 
crease Profits 

Coiiifortiilili'. well-liyliteil, and well-ventilated quarters, and <nii('t and re^^ularitv 
in t'eedinjJT are nearly as iniixirtant a> supplying halanced rations. (From (liicrt'i- 
scif I) feeders' •louinal.) 

vegetables, succulent feeds are relishes for the animals of tiie farm, 
inducing them to consume more feed and economicall}- convert it into 
useful products. It is reasonable to hold that such palatable feeds 
stimulate digestion and it is well known that their beneficial laxative 
effect aids in keeping the digestive tract in p-ood condition. Among 
the most important contributions of the experiment stations are tlieir 
demonstrations of the economy of feeding silage to milch cows, fatten- 
ing cattle and sheep, and of the possibilities of cheapening the cost of 
producing pork thru the utilization of suitable pastUiC. The merits 



(12 FKKDS AND FEKDINH, AP.lv' I D( JED 

of the vtirious forms of succuIcikm' foi the ditTcrciil farm animals nro 
diseusscd in lalcr cliaptcrs. 

Exercise; light. — For Ihc maiiilcnanci' of licallli, cxci'cise is essen- 
tial. The only exceptions to this rnle are fattening animals, soon to 
be marketed, which make more rapid gains if not allowed -to move 
abont too freely. Abundant exercise is of special importance with 
breeding animals. The exercise reqnirements of the various farm 
animals are discussed in the respective chapters of Part III. 

Sunlight is an effective germicide. To prevent the contracfion and 
spread of disease, it is therefore important that the stables be well- 
lighted. For fattening animals the (piarters may l)e darkened some- 
what, as this tends to keep them (jniet and thus favors fattening. 

Quiet and regularity. — Farm animals are creatures of habit, and 
once accustomed to a routine of living show unrest at any change. 
The stable and feed lot should be free from disturbance, and the 
administration of feed and water should be uniform in time aiul 
manner. Animals soon learn the feeding hour, and as it approaches 
the secretions pour from the various digest i\'e glands in anlicii)ation of 
the coming meal. Changes should be made gradually and oidy for 
good reason, for in all feeding o])erations a changing period is usually 
a losing one. 



QUESTIONS 

1. Define a maintenance ration. What four body needs must it meet? 

2. Describe the ])roduction of heat in tlie ))ody and ^tate how it dill'ers from the 
burning of fuel in a stove. 

.'i. ITow do farm aiiinials re^uhite tlie temperature of tlieir bodies? 

4. T;; maintaininj; a mature animal for what is most of the food used? 

;■). TTow wide initritive ratios may rations for maintaining mature aninuils 
ha\e? 

(i. ^^'hat sort of feeds would you give a mature, idle horse? 
7. Are aniids and tiue proteins of the same value? 

5. \Miat mineral elements are most a])t to be deficient in rations? 

9. Xame some feeds that are low and others that arc bigli in cMleium and 
])hosphorus? 

10. If a ration did not coiUain enough calcium oi' eni/.igh phospliorns. wliat 
would \i)u add ? 

11. How has it been shown that cows must be supplii'd with common salt ? 

12. Why is a good system of ventilation necessary in stables? 

1.3. How much water should farm animals be given? For what animals sliould 
it be warmed in winter? 

14. Can animals be maintained on concentrates alone? 

l.'i. Discuss the importance of each of the three vitamines in stock feeding. 

ITi. Discuss the value of succulent feeds, exercise, light, and (piiet and rcgu- 
laritv. 



CHAPTER V 

GROWTH AND FATTENING 

I. Growth 

We have seen in the preceding chapter that for maintaining" mature 
animals but relatively little protein and mineral matter are needed to 
replace the small daily waste of these substances from the body. The 
requirements for young, growing animals are far different, for their 
bodies are increasing rapidly in both protein and mineral matter. 




Fig. 18. — ^Young Animals Need j^bundant Protein and Mineral 

IMatter 

Since the skeleton and protein tissues are steadily increasinsf in size during 
prrowtli, yoiin,^ animals require feeds rich in protein and mineral matter. (From 
Fuller, Wisconsin Station.) 

In the growing body and its organs considerable fat is also stored, 
especially if the animal is well fed. Therefore the growing animal, 
in addition to being supplied with enough food to maintain its weight, 
must receive additional nutrients to provide for the building of its 
body. 

63 



64 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

Requirements for growing animals. — The skin, muscles, ligaments, 
tendons, and internal organs of animals are almost wholly ])r()tein, as 
is a large part of the nervous system and the organic portion of the 
bones. During youth, all these parts steadily increase in size, and at 
the same time much mineral matter is built into the skeleton or is 
retained in the vital parts of the body cells. It is therefore clear 
that the rations for growing animals should contain a much larger 
proportion of protein and mineral matter than is needed in those for 
maintaining mature animals. After growth is completed, but little 
storage of protein or mineral matter can take place, for the skeleton, 
the muscles, and the internal organs have reached full development. 
However, if an animal is healthy but has poor muscular development, 
some increase in the size of the muscles can be made thru suitable 
exercise and an ample supply of protein. Beyond this, the only 
storage of protein which can occur is in the growth of the nitrog- 
enous hair and hoofs, and the small amount of protein stored in the 
fatty tissues. 

We have seen that maintenance rations may consist chiefly of 
roughage, which furnishes little net energy. On the other hand, for 
thrifty growth, the ration must be more concentrated (that is, must 
furnish more net energy) to provide for the energy stored in the 
growing tissues of the body in the form of protein and fat. Further- 
more, the rations for growing- animals must contain ample sup- 
plies of vitamines which have been discussed on Pages .58-60. 

Milk the natural food for young mammals. — Since milk is Nature's 
food for the young of all mammals, it is reasonable to believe that 
it contains all the nutrients necessary to sustain life in the j^oung, 
and that these are in proper proportion. A study of the composition 
of milk, as given in the following table,i will therefore aid in show- 
ing the re(iuirements for growth. 

CoiiiposiNuii of normal milk and of colostrum mill; 

Water ^I'T/'''' Protein Sugar Fat 

Perct. pV, .'t ^^^rvX. Per ct. Per ct. 

Cow, normal milk 87.2 0.7 .3.:") 4.!) .'5.7 

Ewe, normal milk 80.8 0.9 G..5 4.!) O.f) 

Sow, normal milk Sl.O 1.0 5.9 r).4 G.7 

Cow, colostrum milk 74.5 1.0 17.0 2.7 3.0 

Ewe, colostrum milk 01.8 1.0 17.1 3.5 10.1 

Sow, colostrum milk 70.1 0.9 15. (i 3.8 9.5 

1 Partly from Konig, Chem. Nahrungs luul (Jenussmittel, Vol. I, 1903. 

Milk contains an abundant supply of protein compared with the 
amount of other nutrients, having a nutritive ratio of 1 : ;i.!), while 



GROWTH AND FATTENING 65 

the nutritive ratio of dent eoni is 1 : 10.4. Milk is also much rieh;>r 
in mineral matter llian arc llic cereal <:raiiis. The supjily of lime 
and phosphoric acitl. needed in lai-ye amouiils in the ^rowing skeleton, 
is especially liberal, these two const iluenis forminu: about half the 
total mineral matter. jMilk also contains a liberal supply of the 
fat-soluble vitamine and of the water-soluble vitamine, both of Avhich 
are necessary for animals. The sugar and fat in milk furnish con- 
centrated energy and also supply nutrients for the formation of the 
fatty tissues of the body. 

The first milk yielded by the mother, called colostrum, is thicker 
and far higher in protein and often richer in ash than ordinary milk. 
Colostrum is laxative and highly important for cleansing the alimen- 
tary canal of accumulated waste matter and properly starting the 
work of digestion. During the w^eek following birth the composition 
of the milk gradually changes to normal. 

These studies of the composition of milk teach that after weaning 
young animals should be given feeds similar to milk in composition: 
i. e., rich in protein and mineral matter. For this reason, legume 
hay and protein-rich concentrates, like wiieat bran, wheat middlings, 
aiul linseed meal, are of high value for growing animals. 

Protein must be of proper quality. — Only a few years ago scien- 
tists believed that an ample quantitij of protein was all that w^as neces- 
sary for normal growth. IMany recent experiments show, however, 
that not only must the quantitij of protein in the food be abundant, 
but it must also be of the proper kind or quality, if the animal is to 
grow thriftily. AVe have seen in Chapter I that the proteins are 
made up of many different' amino acids (the protein building stones) 
and that the amounts of these different amino acids in various plant 
proteins differ widely. Some are well-balanced, containing consid- 
erable amounts of all the amino acids, while in others certain of the 
amino acids may be entirely lacking. All the different amino acids 
are needed to form the proteins of the bodj^, but animals are able to 
manufacture only one of these amino acids in their bodies from other 
compounds of the food. Therefore, for normal growth the food must 
furnish all the necessary amino acids, with the possible exception of 
a single one. 

The following illustration will show^ the conditions an animal may 
meet in forming body proteins from the mixture of amino acids re- 
sulting from the digestion of the food protein : Suppose we are build- 
ing a brick wall in a certain pattern which requires that 1 brick in 10 
have a green end. If we are using as our source of material a pile 
of bricks resulting from the taking down of another wall, in which 
only 1 brick in 50 had a green end, it is evident that we wdll soon 



66 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

have 1() sto]) ]'('l)uil(linii', tho lla^■illf? many porfcd hrioks ]ofl, because 
iioiu" lia\c the green end required for the i)attern. 

Some j)roteins, such a« the prinei])al ones of Mh(>at, fuiJiish as nmcli 
as 40 per ct. of a single amino acid, wliieh forms only 14 per et. of the 
animal proteins. When such, protein alone is given to growing ani- 
mals, obviously a considerable part will be wasled and growth will be 
checked. Proteins which entirely lack some of the necessaiy amino 
acids will produce no growth whatever Avhen fed alone. However, if 
the necessary amino acids are added to the ration, the animal will be 
able to continue growth. 

The various incomplete or unbalanced proteins do not all lack the 
same amino, acids. Hence, when two incomplete proteins are com- 
bined one may supplement the deficiencies of the other and better 
groAvth be made than on either alone. For example, expei'iments 
with pigs- have shown that when corn alone was fed but 23 per ct. of 
the protein was built into body protein, and when only linseed meal 
was fed, but 17 per ct. When a mixture of three-fourths corn and 
one-fourth linseed meal was given, 37 per ct. of the protein Avas used 
in growth. Thus corn and linseed meal help to correct the deficiencies 
of each other. Still more improvement was made when corn was 
combined with feed containing better balanced proteins. For example, 
on corn and skim milk, 72 per ct, of the protein in the feed was built 
into body protein. It is doubtless partly due to this supplementing 
action of the proteins in different feeds that better results are often 
secured in stock feeding when a variety of feeds is used than with, only 
one or two. The various chapters of Part III show the combinations 
of feeds which are best for the diiferent classes of growing animals. 

Mineral matter required for growth. — It has ali-eady been shown 
that the young animal, growing rapidly in skeleton and body tissues, 
needs a liberal suppl.y of mineral matter, especially calcium (lime) 
and phosphorus. Enough must be furnished not only to provide for 
the growth of the muscles, bones, etc., but to replace the small daily 
loss from the body. 

The injurious effects of a lack of mineral matter are shown in a 
trial at the AVisconsin Station"- in which one lot of growing pigs was 
fed wheat bran from which most of the phosphorus had been removed 
by washing, together with wheat gluten and rice, both of which feeds 
are extremely poor in mineral matter. Other lots were, fed tJie same 
ration plus ground rock phosphate or bone ash. which supplied ample 
calcium and phosphorus. For a considerable period all the pigs 

= McCollmn, .Tour. P.iol. Cliem., 19, 1914, p. 32^; information to the authors. 
= Hnrt, ]\If'rolhnn and Fullor, Wis. Eos. P.ul. 1. 



GROWTH AND FATTENING 



67 



throve fairly well, but as time went on those fed the ration poor in 
mineral matter fell behind llic others. They had no appetite and 
disliked to stand up; later they lost control of their hind quarters and 
had to be carried to the trough at feeding time. When the pigs were 
slaughtered, it was found that those fed insutficient phosphorus had 
light, Aveak bones, while those receiving ground rock phosphate or 
bone ash had strong, heavy ones. 

Since the common feeds which are high in protein are also rich in 
phosphorus, probably plenty of phosphorus will be furnished when 
rations are balanced according to the usual feeding standards. The 




Fig. 19. — Pigs Fed a Ration Lov^^ in Phosphorus 

These yoiinoj pigs, fed a ration very low in pliospliorus at tlie \^'isoonsin Station, 
are stunted and have lost control of tlieir hind quarters. Pigs fed tlie same la- 
tion with ground rock phosphate in addition grew thriftily. (From Hart, Wis- 
consin Station.) 

calcium supply for calves and lambs will usually be ample when hay 
and the cereals form the greater part of the ration. Deficiencies ma.y 
occur in regions where the roughages are unusually low in calcium, or 
when large amounts of such roughages as wheat straw, barley straw, 
or timothy hay are fed. Where pigs are fed exclusively on the cereal 
grains, especially corn, the calcium supply will usually be too low. 
As shown in the preceding chapter, when calcium alone is lacking, 
it may be supplied in legume hay or in the form of ground limestone. 
If only phosphorus, or if both calcium and phosphorus are lacking, 
these may be furnished in ground rock phosphate, ground bone, or 
bone ash. 

Utilization of food by young animals. — The gains made by thrifty, 
well-fed young animals are much larger and more economical, based 
on live weight and food consumed, than those of mature animals. For 
example, an nnweaned calf may gain 2 to 3 lbs. daily for each 100 lbs. 
of body weight, while a daily gain of 0.3 to 0.4 lb. per 100 lbs. of 



68 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

body weight is large for a mature fattening steer. The more rapid 
gains of young aiiiiiials are due to several causes. Tliey consume 
more food per 100 )l)s. live weight and thus have more food left to 
make gain after their bodies are maintained. Young lambs fed cow's 
milk have even stored nearly three-fourths of the protein, over 90 
per ct. of the calcium, and about three-fourths of the phosphorus sup- 
plied in their food. The flesh of young animals is more watery than 
that of older ones. Hence, each pound of the gain they make con- 
tains less dry matter than in the ease of older animals. 

II. Fattening 

The object of fattening*. — AVe all know that the lean meat from a 
well-fattened animal is better flavored and more juicy and tender than 
from a lean one. This improvement in the quality of the lean meat, 
and not the storage of thick masses of fat, is the main object in fat- 
tening animals before they are slaughtered for meat. To some extent 
during growth, and especially during fattening, fat is stored in the 
lean-meat tissues, chiefly between the bundles of fibers of which the 
nniscles are composed. This storage of fat, which forms the so-called 
"marbling" of meat, adds to its tenderness, juiciness, and flavor, be- 
sides increasing the digestibility and nutritive value. 

What fattening is. — The fattening of animals is what the term im- 
plies, chiefly the laying on of fat. IVIany years ago Lawes and Gilbert 
of the Rothamsted (England) Station,* by analyzing the bodies of 
animals slaughtered at various stages of fattening found that the in- 
crease of steers when nearly full grown was about two-thirds fat, and 
only 7.7 per ct. protein and 1.5 per ct. mineral matter. With pigs 
the proportion of fat was even greater. The younger the animals are 
when they are fattened, the greater will be the storage of protein and 
mineral matter. This is shown in the following table, which shows 
the results of experiments at the IMissouri Station.^ There is first 
given the composition of the carcass of a 748-lb. steer in thrifty grow- 
ing condition, followed by the composition of the gains made by sim- 
ilar steers during fattering. 

Composition of vnfattened steer and gains during fattening 

Fat Protein Ash Water 

Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. 

Carcass of imfattened steer 18.6 18.8 5.7 5(5.4 

First 500 lbs. of gain .' 48.0 11.9 2.0 .".T.G 

Second 500 ll)s. of gain 75.6 5.2 1.5 17.8 

4 Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc. 1S60. 

5 Waters, Mumford, and Trowbridge, information to the authors. 



GROWTH AND FATTENING 69 

"While the carcass of the steer killed before fattening contained only 
18.6 per ct. fat, the first 500 lbs. of gain was nearly half, and the last 
500 lbs. over three-fourths fat. During the first 500 lbs. of gain, 11.9 
per ct. of the increase was protein, but in the last 500 lbs. of gain only 
5.2 per ct. was protein. The storage of ash was likewise less as the 
animal matured. 

How body fat is formed. — Since fattening is chiefly a storage of 
body fat, in studying the feed requirements of fattening animals it is 
most important to learn from what substances in the feed this body 
fat may be formed. By numerous feeding experiments it has been 
shown that after enough nutrients have been supplied to maintain the 
body, any excess — no matter whether fat, carbohydrates^ or protein — 
may be transformed into body fat. 

The fat in the food is not commonly stored in the body without 
being altered. As a result, even when all are fed the very same feeds, 
the fat formed by the steer, sheep, and pig will differ considerably in 
chemical properties. All the digested fat taken into the body beyond 
that required for maintenance cannot be deposited as body fat, since 
considerable losses always occur thru the energy used up in digestion 
and assimilation. The largest part of the fat stored in the body is 
undoubtedly formed from the carbohydrates of the food, for these are 
the most abundant nutrients in all common rations. When more pro- 
tein is furnished than is needed for the repair of the body tissues, the 
remainder may, after the nitrogen is split off, also be changed into 
body fat. 

The ration for fattening. — Since the fattening of mature animals 
consists mainly in the storage of fat, there is no demand for a large 
supply of protein for fattening animals. However, it is not advis- 
able to feed a ration having a wider nutritive ratio than 1 :10 or 1 :12, 
for, as we have seen in Chapter III, when less protein than this is fed 
the digestibility of the ration is decreased. Since any excess of pro- 
tein can be changed into fat, where protein-rich feeds are cheaper 
than those of a carbonaceous character, it may be profitable to feed 
rations having a narrow nutritive ratio. For example, in the South, 
where cottonseed meal is frequently the only concentrate used, fatten- 
ing steers are often fed rations having nutritive ratios of 1 :4, or even 
narrower. Animals in thin flesh should at first receive a liberal sup- 
ply of protein so that their muscular tissues may develop. 

Because young animals make the most economical gains, most of 
the meat-producing animals in this country are fattened and mar- 
keted before maturity. Such animals add not only fat but also con- 
siderable lean meat to their bodies as they fatten, and therefore re- 



70 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABKIDGED 

quire more i)rotein than mature animals. From a survey of the many 
feeding- trials carried on by the experiment stations of this country, 
the autliors believe that 2-year-old steers should not be fed rations 
wider than 1 :7 to 1 :7.8 when being fattened. Depending on their age, 
fattening lambs slionld not be fed rations wider than 1 :6 to 1 :8. 
(See Appendix Table V.) 

Factors influencing fattening. — The storage of fat in an animal 
depends primarily upon the quantity of food consumed in excess of 
maintenance and growth requirements. Fattening may take place at 
any age, tho the tendency of young animals to grow greatly reduces 
the proportion of food usually available for fattening. Supplying an 
abundanct of feeds that are palatable, concentrated, and largely di- 
gestible aids rapid fattening, because a large surplus of nutrients 
then remains after supplying the body needs. 

The disposition of an animal to fatten depends upon breed and 
temperament. While a wild animal, nervous and active, can be fat- 
tened only with difficulty, domesticated animals are more quiet and 
usually fatten readily. The restless animal is rarely a good feeder, 
while the quiet one, which is inclined to eat and lie down, will show 
superior gains. This is not due to difference in digestive powers, but 
rather to the fact that the quiet animal has, from a given amount of 
feed, a greater surplus of nutrients for fat building. Fattening ani- 
mals must not be allowed to exercise too much as this wastes nutrients 
which they might store in their bodies. 

Returns from feed. — The following tal)le ^ shows the amount of 
food suitable for man returned by the different classes of farm ani- 
mals from each 100 lbs. of digestible matter consumed : 

Human food produced from 100 lbs. of digestible matter consumed 

Marketiihle Edible Marketable Edible 

Animal product solids Animal product solids 

Lbs.. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Cow (milk) 139.0 18.0 Poultry (ejigs) .... 10.6 5.1 

Pi"' (dressed) 2r).0 15.6 Poultry (dressed) . 15.6 4.2 

Cow (cheese) 14.8 0.4 Lamb " (dressed) ... 0.6 3.2 

Calf (dressed) 36.5 S.l Steer (dressed) 8.3 2.8 

Cow (butter) 6.4 5.4 Slieep (dressed) ... 7.0 2.6 

The table, which presents one side of a most comi)licated problem, 
shows that for 100 lbs. of digestible nutrients consumed the cow 
yields about 139 lbs. of milk, containing 18 lbs. of solids, practically 
all digestible. She easily leads all farm animals in her power to eon- 
vert the crops of the field into human food. The pig produces about 
25 lbs. of dressed carcass. Allowing for water, bone, and gristle, 
there remains over 15 lbs. of edible dry meat. The steer and sheep 

G Jordan, Tlie Feeding of Animals. 



GROWTH AND FATTENING 71 

yield less than 10 lbs. of dressed carcass, nearly half of which is water. 
Deducting this and the bone and gristle, there remains only from 2.6 
to 3.2 lbs. of water-free edible meat. 

■ The economy of gains by animals when young is evident on compar- 
ing the figures for the calf with tliose for the steer, and those for the 
lamb with those for sheep. It should also be noted that the pig ex- 
cels all other meat-producing animals in the efficiency with which he 
produces human food. This is largely because he eats more feed per 
100 lbs. live weight, and also because his food is more concentrated and 
digestible. Both these factors increase the proportion of the food con- 
sumed which can be used for producing gain. 

III. Studies on Growth and Fattening 

Feeding pigs corn only. — In 1884 Sanborn of the ^Missouri Agiicul- 
tural College ' carried on trials in which growing pigs fed exclusively 
on corn meal were compared with others fed on corn meal and either 
wheat middlings or dried blood. The corn-meal ration furnished an 
abundance of easily digested carbohydrates and fat, but was deficient 
in protein and mineral matter. The addition of dried blood or wheat 
middlings to corn meal formed a ration rich in protein and mineral 
matter as well as in carbohydrates and fat. Compared with the corn- 
fed pigs, those getting rations rich in protein had a larger muscular 
development and more blood, and some of their internal organs were 
larger. 

Realizing the fundamental importance of Sanborn's studies, the 
senior author * conducted numerous trials at the Wisconsin Station in 
which dried blood, wheat middlings, field peas, and skim milk, with 
or wi'ihout corn meal, were fed in opposition to corn meal alone. 
Simj^.ar trials were conducted at the Kansas and Alabama Stations 
and in France. Thus at 5 widely separated points pigs were fed ra- 
tions rich in protein and mineral matter, usually containing some 
corn meal, in opposition to corn meal alone, which is rich in carbo- 
hydrates and fat but low in protein and mineral matter. 

Feeding corn alone not only greatly decreased the gains of the pigs 
but also greatly modified the composition of their bodies. As a 
rule, the pigs getting only corn had a smaller amount of blood and 
smaller livers and other internal organs per 100 lbs. of carcass than 
did those fed the rations containing ample protein and mineral mat- 
ter. The bones of the corn-fed pigs were also abnormally weak. In 
the first Wisconsin trial their thigh bones broke at an average pres-' 
sure of 380 lbs. for each 100 lbs. of carcass, while those fed milk, dried 

7 Mo. Bills. 10, 14, 19. 8 Wis. Rpts. ISSG, '87, 'SS, '89. 



72 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



blood, and middlings broke at about 500 lbs. — a difference of 32 per ct. 
in favor of the rations rich in protein and mineral matter. The pigs 
given the protein-rich feeds had nearly 30 per ct. more blood for 
each 100 lbs. of carcass than those fed corn alone, and their livers, 
kidneys, and tenderloin muscles were also larger, showing that a supe- 
rior muscular development was associated with the larger internal 
organs, more blood, etc. Tlie carcasses of the corn-fed pigs, on the 
other hand, contained a greater proportion of fat. 




Fig. 20. — ^Pigs Fed Corn Alone Do Not Develop Normal Carcasses 

Upper row, cross sections of carcasses of pins fed for lean ; i. e., on well-bal- 
nncL'd ration, by the senior autlior at the Wisconsin Station. Left, section at 
shoulder; middle, section between fifth and sixth ribs; rioht, section at loin.5. 
Lower row, carcasses of pigs fed corn alone. Note larger size of muscles of pigs 
fed well-balanced ration. 



These experiments show the plastic nature of the bodies of young, 
growing animals. Immature animals living on such ujisuitable food 
may survive for a long time, but the}^ develop bodies that are dwarfed 
in size and made unnaturally fat. Nature's plan is first to grow the 
body framework and afterwards to lay on the fat, if food be abundant. 
The experiments point to the reasonable, important, and far-reaching 
conclusion that if a pig or other young animal is improperly fed so as 
to injure its bones, muscles, and vital organs even a very little, and 



GROWTH AND FATTENING 73 

the process is repeated during several generations, the effects will be- 
come marked and strikingl^^ injurious. The practical lesson is 
taught that young animals should be fed a combination of feeding 
stuffs that will allow normal growth. This calls for a ration con- 
taining crude protein and mineral matter not only in ample amount, 
but also of suitable composition for the rapid formation of body tis- 
sues. When growth is completed, the food supply may then consist 
largely of carbohydrates and fat, which are the cheap and abundant 
sources of animal fat. 

Growth under adverse conditions. — Extensive experiments carried 
on at the IMissouri ° and Kansas ^^ Stations are of much interest in 
showing what happens when young animals are fed only enough feed 
to maintain their weights. Due to the impulse toward growth, young 
steers fed scanty rations continued to grow in height, tho not gaining 
in weight. In this effort the fat stored in the body was withdrawn 
and used up as body fuel, the animals becoming thin in flesh as the 
scanty feeding progressed. 

For 70 to 120 days, depending on how vigorous they were and how 
much fat they carried, young steers fed only enough to maintain their 
weight gained as rapidly in height as others on full feed. After this 
period the increase in height became less rapid, ceasing altogether in 
from 6 months to a year and half, by which time the animals had be- 
come quite thin and had burned up all the fat in their bodies which 
was not absolutely necessary to life. Growth on scanty rations is not 
due directly to the fat re-absorbed from the body. The animal burns 
its stored fat to support the body, and the scanty protein supply in its 
food is used for building body tissue. 

As a result of these studies Waters of the Kansas Station points 
out that a young animal may reach normal size by any or all of the 
following waj's : 

1. By growing steadily from birth to maturity. 

2. By storing fat during a period of abundant food supply, which 
will help to tide over a limited period of sparse food supply without 
serious checking of growth. 

3. By prolonging the growth period. 

4. By an increase in the rate of growth during a period of liberal 
feeding following a period of scanty feeding and low gain. 

5. By using its food more efficiently. Apparently when an animal 
is kept for a long period on scanty food, it gets on a more economical 
basis than when liberally fed. A ration which is at first insufficient 

9 Waters and Trowbridge, Proc. Prom. Agr. Sci. 1908; information to the 
autiiors. 
iu Waters, Cochel, and Vestal, Kansas Industrialist, May 10, 1913; Apr. 18, 
1914; and information to tlie authors. 



74 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



to maintain an animal may be capable later of keeping the same animal 
at a constant body weight, and still later of causing a small gain. 

Effects of checking- growth. — Numerous experiments have been 
carried on at the Kansas Station to determine the effect on the later 



Medium Rations 



GROWTH OF STEERS 




Full Rations 


Scant Rations 




IBB^ 








Fig. 21. — Scant Feeding Stunts Growing Animals 



Tlie steer in the middle row of pictures, fed a full ration, weifrl'pd 1, !)(;,") Tis; ni 
47 niontlis. The steer at the left, fed a medium ration, weiiilied only l,-i24 II) ^.. 
and tlie one at the rigiit, fed a scant ration, but 1,042 lbs. Note the stuulcd ap- 
jiearance of the latter steers at the end of the trial. (From ^Missouri Station.) 

development of pure-bred beef steers of checking their growth by 
under-feeding. It was found that supplying a young, growing ani- 
mal with a scant ration for only a short period will have no perma- 
nent effef^t on its development. Even when insufficient feeding is 



GROWTH AND FATTENING 



75 



continued for a year or longer, the animal will recover to a surprising 
extent when placed on liberal feed, making unusually rapid and 
economical gains. 

However, while a steer whose growth has been checked for a year 
or more may grow nearly as tall as one always well fed, it is almost 
certain to have a smaller digestive capacity, narrower hips, flatter 
ribs, heavier shoulders, and lighter hind quarters, even when well 
fattened. The blocky form of the highly developed beef animal has 
evidently been caused by broadening the animal thru liberal feeding 
while young. If the feed is insufficient to distend the digestive tract 






y F /Ha 



y/ Mo. 



i/-^ Mo. 



Fig. 22. — Round Steaks from Steers Variously Fed 

Left, from steers fed medium ration; middle, from steers fed full ration; 
right, from steers fed scant ration. Note large size and well-marbled appear- 
ance of muscles from the full-fed steers and tlie scarcity of fat in the meat from 
the steers fed the scant ration. (From Missouri Station.) 

and force out the ribs and hips while the body is yet plastic, then the 
animal will never later reach the desired conformation of the true 
beef type. 

These studies on growth are highly significant to the stockman. 
They show that under certain conditions it may be profitable to carry 
growing animals thru the winter on roughages alone, even tho they 
lose slightly in weight, for on a return to good pasture, animals in 
spare but thrifty condition make exceedingly economical gains. How- 
ever, the breeder of any class of stock who seeks to develop his animals 
toward an ideal must supply ample feed during the whole growth 
period. 

QUESTIONS 

1. TTow do the requirements for growing animals differ from those for main- 
taining mature animals? 

2. Show by an example why the protein supply for growth raust be not only 
ample in quantity but also of the right quality. 



76 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

3. Wliat is tlio effect of feeding rations deficient in mineral matter to growing 
animals? 

4. Compare the economy with which young animals and mature ones use their 
food. 

5. Wiiat is the object of fattening meat producing animals? 

6. What is tiie composition of the gains during fattening? 

7. From what materials may body fat be formed? 

8. Discuss tlie food requirements of fattening animals? 

9. What factors influence fattening? 

10. Name the various farm animals in the order of their efficiency in making 
human food. 

11. Describe the efTects of feeding pigs corn alone. 

12. What are the effects of supplying scanty rations to growing animals? 



CHAPTER VI 

PRODUCTION OF WORK, MILK, AND WOOL 

I. Production of Work 

It has long been known that muscular exertion or external bod.v 
work greatly increases the amount of food material broken down in 
the bod}', but scientists have disagreed as to whether one or all of the 
nutrients — protein, carbohydrates, or fat — furnishes the energy. 

The source of muscular energy. — By painstaking trials it was fi- 
nally proved that all the organic nutrients, not only the carbohy- 
drates and fats, but also the proteins and apparently the pentosans, 
may serve as sources of muscular work. Under normal conditions, 
the carbohydrates and fats of the food are first drawn upon, no more 
protein being broken down than during rest. Should these not fur- 
nish enough energy for the work, the body fat is next used. If this 
is still insufficient or is much diminished by continued work, then, 
as the last resort, the muscles or other protein tissues will be called 
upon for the needed energy. 

Production of muscular energy. — We know that in doing work the 
muscles of the body contract, that is, become shorter and thicker. 
However, we do not yet understand in just what manner the energy 
of the nutrients is converted into the energy of muscular action, tho 
we do know some of the processes which take place in the working 
muscles. 

In some marvelous manner the nutrients are suddenly broken down 
in the cells of the muscles, and part of the energy they contain is 
changed into mechanical work, while another part is set free as heat. 
In this change oxygen is taken up from the blood and carbon dioxid 
is given off', just as occurs when fuel is burned. The production of 
mechanical energy in the muscles is in a way similar to the production 
of power by a gasoline engine, where the fuel undergoes such a rapid 
breaking down that it becomes an explosion. As in the muscle, part 
of the energy of the fuel is turned into useful w^ork and part is set 
free as heat. This latter part yields no useful work. 

During rest, glycogen, or animal starch, is stored in the muscles, 
forming from 0.5 to 0.9 per ct. of the weight of well-nourished muscle 
when resting. A smaller amount of glucose is also stored in the 
muscles. ]\lost of the energy produced in work is doubtless formed 

77 



78 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



thru the oxidation of these two earboliydrates. Tho the supply in the 
body tissues at any one time is small, glucose is contiiniously being 
formed from the food luitrieiits or body tissues, to replace that used 
up during work. 

The animal as a machine. — Numerous experiments have shown that 
animals at moderate work can convert into external work from 29 to 
37 per et. of the total energy expended. On the average, about oiie- 




FiG. 23. — The Muscular System of the Horse 



The -work done yearly in this country by horses and mules is worth oyer $2,- 
000,000,000. {From Kllenberger.) 

third of the energy used by men or animals in muscular exertion is 
recovered as useful work. The rest takes the form of heat within the 
body, and is lost so far as the production of work is concerned. These 
figures do not take into account the energy lost in the excreta, that 
expended for digestion and assimilation, or that used in maintaining 
the body when at rest. Allowing for all of these, a horse doing a full 
day's work will turn about 8 per ct. or over of the gross energy of its 
feed into actual useful external work, sucli as hauling a load, without 



PRODUCTION OF WORK, MILK AND WOOL 79 

counting the energy expended in the work of moving its own body. 
Recent tests luivc shown that on the average late models of farm 
tractors will convert just about the s<une percentage of the gross 
energy of the fuel into the work of draft. 

Thus, as a mere machine,, the animal compares favorably with the 
best modern tractors. The efficiency of the animal is especially 
striking when it is borne in mind that the tractor is supplied with 
purified fuel (kerosene or gasoline) from which much impurities and 
waste mateiials have been removed by distillation, while the horse 
must secure its energy from crude materials, including hay, of which 
only about half is actually digestible. Furthermore, he must digest 
this feed and himself separate out the useful from the waste material. 
Also, he must transport the fuel secured in his feed, and make all 
body repairs. Last but not least, he must maintain, his body during 
the time he is not working, while when the tractor stops work, all 
expenditures of energy cease. 

Factors influencing energy required for work. — The amount of 
energy required to produce a given amount of useful work depends 
upon many factors. Practice iu doing a certain kind of work lessens 
the amount of energ;^^ expended. In one instance, training for two 
weeks decreased by over 20 per ct. the energy used by a man climbing 
a tower. On the other hand, fatigue greatly increases the energy' 
required to do a given task. This is largely due to the fact that with 
increasing fatigue the muscles normally used, and which are thus most 
efficient in performing the given w^ork, are put out of use. Then other 
less used muscles are called upon to a constantly increasing degree, 
and these cannot perform the work so economically. Increasing the 
speed at which the w^ork is done also lessens the efftciency with which 
it is performed. This is because the work of the heart is increased, 
the body temperature rises, and much heat is lost by the evaporation 
of water thru the skin and lungs. This decreases the amount of work 
which a given quantity of feed will produce. 

The part of the expended energy appearing in useful work varies 
with the build of the animal, the development of its muscles, and the 
structure of its limbs. For example, a lame horse may use nearly 
twice as much energy in traveling a cei-tain distance as one with sound 
legs. An animal which is able to perform one kind of work most 
economically may have to expend undue energy at other kinds of 
work. Thus, horses bred for generations to the saddle can carry the 
rider with a smaller expenditure of energy than those whose breeding 
and form specially fit them for draft purposes. 

Additional discussions of the factors influencing the production of 
work, as applied to horses, are given in Chapter XVIII. 



80 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



II. Production op Milk 

Secretion of milk. — IMilk, the marvelous fluid designed by Nature 
for the nourishment of the young of all mammals, is secreted by special 
organs, called the mammary glands. Scientists disagree as to the 
exact process by which the milk is formed in the small, sac-like bodies, 
known as alveoli, in the udder. However, we do know that the blood, 
laden with nutrients, is brought b'' the capillaries of the udder to 
these alveoli. The nutrients then jjass thru the walls of the capillaries 
into the alveoli. There, by one of Nature's wonderful processes, they 

are converted into milk, 
which differs entirely 
in composition from 
the blood whence it 
originates. The chief 
proteins of milk — 
casein and milk albu- 
min — differ from all 
other proteins of the 
body, and the milk fat 
likewise has entirely 
different properties 
from the body fat of 
the same animal. Milk 
sugar, the carbohy- 
drate of milk, is found 
nowhere else in the 
body. While the blood contains much more potassium than sodium, 
in milk the sodium predominates. 

From the alveoli the milk passes into the network of milk ducts. 
In some animals the large milk duets open directly on the surface of 
the teat, but in others, including the cow, they open into a small cavity, 
called the milk cistern, which is just above the teat. Most of the milk 
yielded at one milking is secreted during the milking process, for the 
udder has room for the storage of but a small part of the total product. 
Tho the secretion of milk is involuntary and cannot be prevented 
by the animal, any more than can breathing or the circulation of the 
blood, the flow may be reduced by nervousness caused by fright, an 
unfamiliar attendant, or other unusual circumstance. The animal 
has considerable power to "hold up" the milk already secreted in the 
udder, by contracting the ring of muscle which partially separates 
the milk cistern from the teat, and similar muscles guarding the milk 
ducts. 




Fig. 24. — IMammary GTland of Cow 

Small portion of gland, greatly magnifiod. A 
alveoli, in which milk is secreted: b, small milk duct; 
c, larger milk duct. (After Klein.) 



PRODUCTION OF WORK, MILK AND WOOL 81 

Source of fat in milk. — For many years it was believed that the 
cow could form the fat of milk only from the fat in her food. This 
was disproved in an ingenious experiment at the New York (Geneva) 
Station.^ For over 3 months a cow was fed on hay, cornmeal, and 
oats, from which tlie fat had been extracted by naplitha, as is done in 
one method of extracting the oil from flax seed. During this time 
the cow received only 5.7 lbs. digestible fat in her feed, but yielded 
62.9 lbs. of fat in her milk. She was fatter at the end of the trial 
than at the beginning and so could not have converted her body fat 
into milk fat. From the amount of digestible protein in her feed, it 
was computed that not over 17 lbs. of the milk fat could possibly have 
come from the food protein. Thus, the larger part of the fat must 
have been formed from the carbohydrates of the feed. 

Nutrients required for milk production. — A study of the nutrients 
the cow yields in her milk will aid in showing the kind and amount of 
nutrients her ration should furnish. A dairy cow of no unusual 
ability should yield annually 8,000 lbs. of milk of average quality. 
Taking the composition shown in a previous table (Page 64), w^e find 
that she will produce in her milk 272 lbs. of protein, 296 lbs. of fat, 
392 lbs. of milk sugar, and 56 lbs. of mineral matter. This is 56 per 
ct. more protein, 30 per ct. more non-nitrogenous nutrients (fat and 
carbohydrates), and 19 per ct. more mineral matter than is contained 
in the entire body of a fat 2-year-old steer weighing 1,200 lbs. 

Thus, each j-ear the cow yields more protein and mineral matter 
than has been built into the body of the steer during its life. At the 
same time she may be storing considerable protein and mineral matter 
in the developing body of her unborn calf. It is therefore evident 
that, far different from the requirements of the mature horse at work 
or of a mature fattening animal, the cow needs a liberal supply of 
protein and mineral matter. Just as in the case of growing animals, 
this must not only be ample in quantity, but also of the proper kind or 
quality. Furthermore, the liigh-producing cow is working just as 
truly as the horse pulling a load, and hence needs a liberal supply of 
concentrates rich in net energy. Energy used up in the mastication, 
digestion, and assimilation of such feeds as straw takes the form of 
internal heat and is of no value for the formation of milk. 

Since most of the scientific studies of the factors influencing the 
production of milk have been conducted w'ith the dairy cow, the dis- 
cussion of milk production by that animal is continued in Chapters 
XX and XXI. The requirements of the mare, ewe, and sow for the 
production of milk are also treated in the respective chapters of 
Part III. 

i.Tordan a"'^ .Tenter, N. Y. (Geneva) Bui. 132. 



82 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



III, Wool Production 

Composition of wool. — Aside from inoistiirc and dirt, "wool" is 
made up of pure wool liber and yolk, the latter iiieludiiig the suint and 
the wool fat. The wool fiber is practically pure protein, and is of the 
same chemical composition as ordinary hair, but differs in being 
covered with minute overlapping scales. The suint, 
chiefly composed of compounds of potassium with 
organic acids, comprises from 15 to over 50 per ct. 
of the unwashed fleece, being especially high in the 
Merino breed. As suint is soluble in water, most 
of it is removed by washing the unshorn sheep or 
the fleece, and less is present in the wool of sheep 
exposed to the weather. The fat, often incorrectly 
called yolk, is a complex mixture of fatty sub- 
stances, insoluble in water, and may make up from 
8 to 30 per ct. of the weight of a washed fleece. 

Requirements for wool production. — Owing to 
the large amount of protein stored by sheep in their 
fleeces, their rations should contain somewhat more 
protein than rations for cattle or swine at the same 
stage of maturity. This is taken into consideration 
in the various feeding standards for the different 
classes of animals. (See Appendix Tables IV and 
V.) With ewes which are either pregnant or suck- 
ling lambs, there is a double demand for food pro- 
tein, which makes a liberal supply especially ad- 
visable. 

When sheep are fed insufficient food to maintain 
their weight, the yield of wool is considerably di- 
minished. On the other hand, the production of 
wool fiber and wool fat is practically no greater 
when a full-grown sheep receives a liberal fatten- 
ing ration than when it is maintained in ordinary condition. Feeding 
lambs liberally produces a larger body and consequently a heavier 
fleece. 

The strength of the wool fiber is dependent on the breed, the quality 
of the individual sheep, and the conditions under which they are 
raised. Conditions which check the growtii of the wool, such as insuffi- 
cient feed, undue exposure, or sickness, will produce a weak spot in 
the fiber. The feed and care for the flock should therefore be liberal 
and as uniform as possible. 




Fig. 25.— AYool 
Fibers 

Appearance of 
fibers, greatly mao- 
nified, after dirt 
and yolk liave been 
removed. Left, 
liber of Merino 
wool; right, fiber 
of Down wool. 
Kote the overlap- 
ping scales cover- 
ing the libers. 



PRODUCTION OF WORK, MILK AND WOOL 83 



QUESTIONS 

1. WTiat i.s tlie suiuci' of imiscular energy? 

2. Tell what is known about the way muscular energy is produced. 

3. How do animals compare with engines in the efficiency with which they 
perform work ? 

4. Discuss tlie cfTeets of speed, training, fatigue, and build of animal on the 
economy with wliich work is jiroduced. 

'). What is known about milk secretion? 

fi. How has it been shown tliat milk fat may be formed from the carbohydrates 
of the feed? 

7. Wiiat are the food requirements of cows in milk? 

8. Of what is wool composed? 

n. Why should sheep be fed a larger proportion of protein than beef cattle or 
pigs? 
10. In what manner does the feed influence the quantity and quality of wool? 



CHAPTER VII 

FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 

I. Early Feeding Standards 

To guide the farmer in selecting rations for his stock, scientists 
have drawn up feeding standards. These are tables showing the 
amounts of each class of nutrients which, it is believed, should be pro- 
vided for farm animals of the various ages and classes for the best 
results. 

Early feeding standards. — At the beginning of the last century 
almost nothing was known about the chemistry of plants and animals, 
and the farmer gave his stock hay and grain without knowing what 
there was in this feed that nourished them. In 1859, when chemistry 
had thrown some light on the composition of feeds, Grouven, in Ger- 
many, proposed the first feeding standard for farm animals. This 
was, however, very imperfect, for it was based not on the amount of 
digestible nutrients required, but on the total crude protein, carbo- 
hydrates, and fat in feeding stuffs. 

In 1864 Wolff, a German scientist, presented the first table of feed- 
ing standards based on the digestible nutrients contained in feeds. 
These set fortli the amounts of digestible crude protein, carbohydrates, 
and fat required daily by the diff'erent classes of farm animals. The 
Wolff standards were brouglrt to the attention of American farmers 
10 years later and were further introduced by Armsl)y's "Manual of 
Cattle Feeding," which appeared in 1880. The value and importance 
of these standards were soon recognized and with their adoption came 
the first wide-spread effort toward the rational feeding of farm ani- 
mals. In 1896 the Wolff standards were modified by Lehmann, as 
scientific trials had then thrown further light on stock feeding. 

The numerous feeding experiments which have been carried on since 
the Wolff-Lehmaini standards were presented have given us much 
more complete knowledge of the nutrients recjuired by the various 
classes of farm animals than was then possessed. Therefore it is not 
advisable or economical at the present time to balance rations for the 
actual feeding of live stock according to these out-of-date standards. 
Instead, rations should be computed according to one of the modern 

84 



FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULxiTING RATIONS 



85 



standard.s presented later, which meet present conditions and are l)ased 
upon the recent experiments in animal nutrition and stock feedin^i'. 

The Wolflf-Lehmann standards are given in full in Appendix 
Table IV, From this the following- examples are taken for purposes of 
study : 

Digestible nutrients required daily per 1,000 lbs. live tceight 





Dry 

matter 


Digestible nutrients 


Nutri- 


Animal 


Crude 

protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


tive 
ratio 


Ox, at rest 

Fattening cattle, 1st period. . 
Cow, yielding 22 lbs. milk. . . 
Horse, at medium worlc .... 


Lbs. 
18 
30 
20 
24 


Lbs. 

0.7 
2.5 
2.5 

2.0 


Lbs. 
8.0 
15.0 
13.0 
11.0 


Lbs. 

0.1 

0.5 

0.5 

0.6 


1:11.8 
1: 6.5 
1: 5.7 
1: 6.2 



The table shows that according to the Wolff-Lehmann standards a 
1,000-lb. ox at rest, neither gaining nor losing in weight, requires 
for 1 day's maintenance 18 lbs. of dry matter containing the follow- 
ing digestible nutrients: 0.7 lb. crude protein, 8.0 lbs. carbohydrates, 
and 0.1 lb. fat, with a nutritive ratio of 1 :11.8. When the animal is 
growing, fattening, giving milk, or VvM)rking, more nutrients must be 
supplied than for maintenance, as the table shows. 

Careful experiments carried on since tlie Wol ff-Lehmann standards 
were proposed have conclusively shown that dairy cows, work horses, 
and fattening cattle, sheep, and pigs all need considerably less crude 
protein than is recommended in these standards. As protein-rich 
feeds are usually the highest in price over much of our country, fol- 
lowing these standards is usually very uneconomical. The recent ex- 
periments have been taken into consideration in drawing up the Mor- 
rison, or modified Wolff -Lehmann. standards which are discussed latei* 
in this chapter and given in Appendix Table V. As these ar(> based 
upon the many feeding trials carried on in recent years, they furnisli 
more accurate information on the requirements of farm animals than 
the Wolff-Lehmann standards. 

Altho in the actual feeding of stock one of tlie more recent feed- 
ing standards described later in this chapter should be followed, botli 
students and stocUmen shoultl, first of all, familiarize themselves with 
the Wolff-Lehmann standards because of their historical interest and 
because they are still sometimes used in computing rations for stock. 
After this, one is prepared for the study of the modern and more 
accurate standards discussed later. 



86 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



II. Calculating Katioxs for Farm Animals 

General requirements of satisfactory rations. — The various feeding 
standards make recommendations only in regard to the amounts of 
dry matter, of the various nutrients, and, in the case of the Kelhier 
and Armsby standards, of the net energy which the ration should 
supply. However, the following highly important factors should also 
bo taken into account in computing rations for farm animals. 

Suitability of feeds. — The feeds selected for any animal should be 
such that they will not injure its health or the quality of the product 
yielded. Feeds which are suited to one class of farm animals may 




Fig. 26. — A "Balanced" Ration Which Is Unsatisfactory and 

Expensive 

Tliis ration of 18 lbs. timothy hay, 4 lbs. corn meal. 5 lbs. wheat bran, and 2.5 
lbs. linseed meal, meets the standards for a- l.OOn-Ih. dairy cow yieldin.i; 'M) lbs. of 
.■>..") ]icr et. mik. However, the timothy hay is net palatable, and the ration is 
not only unsatisfactory but e.\pensive. Cost o(i cents. (From Humphrey, VVis- 
lonsin Station.) 

not be adapted to others. Again, a given feed may give satisfactory 
results only when combined with certain other feeds. A few examples 
of such conditions are furnished in the following: Cottonseed meal 
in moderate amount is an excellent feed for cattle, sheep, and horses, 
yet it is frequently poisonous to pigs. Timothy hay, the standard 
roughage for horses, is unsatisfactory for dairy cows, and may cause 
serious trouble with sheep on account of its constipating effect. Feed- 
ing cows a heavy allowance of ground soybeans produces unduly soft 
butter, while an excess of cocoanut meal makes the butter too hard. 
It is often highly beneficial to add wheat bran or linseed meal to the 
ration because of their slightlv laxative effect. "When animals are 



FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 87 

already receiving laxative feeds, such as corn silage, pasture grass, and 
legume hay, the use of bran or linseed meal may be unwise. 

In computing rations one should therefore always learn whether the 
feeds under consideration are satisfactory for the given animals. The 
value and suitability of all important feeds for the various classes of 
stock are discussed in Part TI of this book and more detailed informa- 
tion concerning their use w.tli each kind of stock is given in Part III. 

Bulkiness of ration. — AVe have already seen in Chapter IV that at 
least with the horse and with young ruminants che ration must contain 
some roughage lo distend the digestive tract properly. Furthermore, 
for the best results, the proportion of concentrates and roughages in 




Fig. 27. — A Ration "Which Is Fair, But Lacks Succulence 

'Ihis ration of 20 IIis. red clover liay. 5 lbs. corn meal, and 4 lbs. oats furnishes 
only about as much digestible nutrients as the previous one. but will <;ive better 
results, because the clover hay is more palatable to cows than timothy hay. 
Cost 48 cents. (From HumiDhrej', Wisconsin Station.) 

the ration should be regulated according to the kind and class of animal 
to be fed and the results desired. Cattle, sheep, and horses can be 
wintered satisfactorily on roughages alone, if of suitable quality, and 
even brood sows may be maintained chiefly on legume hay, when not 
suckling their j'oung. On the other hand, a considerable part of the 
rations for growing and fattening animals and those at work or in 
milk should consist of concentrates. To fatten animals rapidly con- 
siderably more concentrates must be fed than when they are fattened 
more slowly. Similarly, horses at ha!-d woi-k should be given more 
grain and less roughage than those working but little. 



«8 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

The present feedinji standards recognize these facts in the amount 
of dry matter they prescribe in the rations for the ditferent classes of 
animals. Obviously, when the re(|uirement of dig-pstible nutrients or 
of net energy is high comi)ared with the total amount of dry matter 
advised, the proportion of concentrates in the ration must l>e large 
to meet the standard. On the other hand, for the mere maintenance 
of animals the standards call for much lesb digestible nutrients or net 
energy compared with the amount of total dry matter. 

In computing rations, the following will help to show the propor- 
tion of concentrates and roughages for the various classes of animals: 

Mature idle horses and mature cattle and sheep being maintained at constant 
weight may be fed chiefly or entirely on roughage, unless it is of poor quality, 
when some grain must be used. 

Horses at icork should be given 2 to 2.'-> lbs. of feed (dry roughages and con- 
centrates combined) daily per 100 lbs. live weight, the concentrates ranging from 
about 0.7 to 1.4 lbs. per 100 lbs. live weight for horses at medium to hard work. 

Dairij coics in milk will eat 2 lbs. of good (]uality dry roughage daily per 100 
lbs. live weight. Silage may be substituted for dry roughage at the rate of 3 lbs. 
silage for 1 lb. dry roughage. A common rule is to feed 1 lb. legume hay and 3 
lbs. silage daily per 100 lbs. live weight. SuHTicient concentrates should be added 
to bring the nutrients up to the standard. 

Fattening steers need 2.1 lbs. or more of concentrates and dry roughage (or 
the equivalent in silage) daily ])er 100 ll)s. live weight, the allowance of con- 
centrates ranging from less tiian 1 lb. to 1.7 lbs. or more, per 100 lbs. live weight, 
depending on the rate of gain desired and tlie kind of roughage. 

Fattening lambs will consume about 1.4 lbs. of dry roughage daily wbi'u fed 
all the grain they will eat, and up to 2.3 lbs. or over when the grain allowance 
is restricted. Silage may replace a corresponding amount of dry matter in dry 
roughage. 

Pigs can make but limited use of dry roughage, e.xcept in the case of brood 
sows not suckling young. 

Mineral matter. — In the various feeding standards no statement is 
made as to the amount or kind of mineral matter required by the 
different classes of animals, the supposition being that a ration which 
provides the proper amount of protein and other nutrients will also 
furnish enough mineral matter. In some cases, especially with the 
pig, the mineral supply may be deficient in amount or unbalanced in 
character in rations which meet the ordinary standards. In com- 
puting rations the special reqitirements of the various classes of ani- 
mals, as set forth in the preceding chajjters, should therefore be kept 
in mind. 

Palatability. — As has already been pointed out in Chapter IV, the 
pala1al)ility of the ration is an important factor in stimulating diges- 
tion and in inducing the animal to consume heavy rations. The wise 
feeder will utilize feeds of low ])alatability chiefly for such animals as 
are being merely maintained, and will feed growing and fattening ani 



FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 89 

mals, milch cows, and horses at hard work rations made up, for the 
most part at least, of well-liked feeds. Some concentrates, such as malt 
sprouts and dried distillers' grains, which may not be relished when 
fed alone, are entirely satisfactory if given in mixture with other bet- 
ter-liked feeds. Similarly, such roughages as straw and marsh hay, 
which are of low palatability, may be given in limited amount even to 




Fig. 28. — An Excellent and Economical Ration 

This ration of 30 lbs. corn silage, 12 lbs. red clover hay. 3 ."> lbs. corn meal. 2.5 
lbs. wheat bran, and 1 lb. cottonseed meal furnishes no more nutrients, yet it is 
much superior to the two previous ones, for the feeds are all palatable and suit- 
able for dairy cows, and the silage provides succulence. Cost 46 cents, nearly 
one-fifth less than the first ration. (From Humphrey, Wisconsin Station.) 

animals fed for production, a practice widely followed by European 
farmers. Wliile the largest gains are made on rations composed en- 
tirely of exceedingly palatable feeds, it should be remembered that one 
of the chief functions of our domestic animals is to consume and con- 
vert into useful products materials which would otherwise be wasted. 

Variety of feeds. — Skilled feeders usually believe that a ration con- 
taining several feeds will give better results than when a smaller num- 
ber are employed, even tho the latter ration supplies the proper amount 
of protein, carbohydrates, and fat. From the discussions in the pre- 
ceding chapters, in which it has been pointed out that the protein fur- 
nished by certain feeds is unbalanced in composition, it is evident that 
a larger variety of feeds may, by the law of chance, furnish a better 
balanced mixture of proteins than one or two feeds alone. It would 
therefore seem wise, in choosing supplements for a ration low in pro- 
tein, to select those which will supply protein from different sources. 
For example, it is injudicious, if other supplements are equally avail- 
able, to use corn by-products, such as corn gluten feed or gluten meal, 
in balancing the ration of pigs otherwise fed corn only. 

With dairy cows, especially in the case of high-producing animals 
being forced on official test, skilled feeders place emphasis on having 



90 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

variety in the ration, tlio this does not imply changes in the ration from 
clay to day. Indeed, sudden changes in kinds of feed are to be avoided. 
At least for horses and fattening animals, a simple ration, providing 
it is well-balanced and palatable, is as satisfactory as one containing a 
large variety of feeds. For example, oats and timothy hay for the 
horse, and corn and skim milk for the fattening pig, furnish rations 
which can scarcely be improved from the standpoint of production and 
health, tho other combinations may perhaps be cheaper. 

Cost of the ration. — ^Most important of all, for the farmer who 
depends on the profits from his stock for his income, is the cost of the 
ration. In devising cheap, yet efficient rations, lies a great opportunity 
for exercising foresight and business judgment on every farm where 
animals are fed. The wise farmer-feeder will consider the nutrient 
requirements of his animals in planning his crop rotations. Thru the 
use of grain from corn or the sorghums, combined with legume hay and 
such cheap succulence as corn or sorghum silage, it is possible in most 
sections of the country to go far toward solving the problem of pro- 
viding a well-balanced, economical ration. 

Feeding standards only approximate glides. — In Chapter III it 
has been shown that the composition of a given feeding stuff is not 
fixed, but is materially influenced by such factors as climate, stage of 
maturity when harvested, etc. Furthermore, individual animals differ 
in their ability to digest and utilize their feed. It should therefore be 
borne in mind that tables of digestible nutrients and likewise feeding 
standards are averages and approximations — something quite different 
from the multiplication table. "While feeding standards are not to be 
followed blindly, they are exceedingly valuable guides when supple- 
mented by business judgment and a practical knowledge of feeds and 
animals. 

The allowance of protein set forth in the various standards is the 
minimum recommended by the scientists. Where protein-rich feeds 
are lower in price than those carbonaceous in character, as is alfalfa in 
the great alfalfa districts of the West and cottonseed meal in the cotton 
belt, it is often economical to furnish more protein than called for by 
the standards. Except with very young animals, it is, however, not 
advisable to feed rations having a nutritive ratio narrower than 1 : 4 
or 1 : 4.5. Where protein-rich feeds are high in price it may be eco- 
nomical to feed a wider ration than advised even by the more modern 
standards, tho it is rarely wise to depart far from them. 

Maintenance ration for steers. — Plaving discussed the general fac- 
tors which should be considered in computing rations for farm animals, 
let us now calculate the feed required, according to the Wolff-Lehmann 
standard, to maintain a 1,000-lb. ox at rest in his stall when neither 



FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 



91 



gaining nor losing in weight. Since mature animals can be main- 
tained largely on roughages, let us see how nearly field-cured corn 
stover and oat straw will meet the requirements. As the standard calls 
for 18 lbs. of dry matter, we will first try quantities of these feeds 
which supply slightly less than this amount. 

If for the trial ration it is decided to feed 10 lbs. of corn stover and 
10 lbs. of oat straw for roughage, then, using the values for digestible 
nutrients given in Appendix Table III, the calculations for dry matter 
and digestible nutrients would be as given below: 



Corn stover, field-cured Oat straw 

In 100 In 10 In 100 

pounds pounds pounds 

Dry matter 59.0 -^ 100 X 10 = 5-90 88.5 

Crude protein 1.4-^100x10 = 014 1.0 

Carbohydrates 31.1 -^ 100 X 10 = 3.11 42.6 

Fat 0.6 -MOO X 10 = 0.06 0.9 

Arranging these results in tabular form, we have : 



In 10 
pounds 

100 X 10 = 8.85 
100 X 10 = 0.10 
100 X 10 = 4.26 
100 X 10 = 0.09 



First trial ration for maintaining 1,000-lb. ox at rest 





Dry 
matter 


Digestible nutrients 


Nutri- 


Feeding stuffs 


Crude 
protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


tive 
ratio 


Corn stover, 10 lbs 


Lbs. 
5.90 

8.85 


Lbs. 

0.14 

0.10 


Lbs. 
3.11 
4.26 


Lbs. 
0.06 
0.09 




Oat straw, 10 lbs 




First trial ration 

WolfT-Lehmann standard... 


14.75 

18.00 


0.24 
0.70 


7.37 
8.00 


0.15 
0.10 


1:32.2 
1:11.8 


Excess or deficit 


—3.25 


—0.46 


—0.63 


+ 0.05 





This trial ration contains only about one-third the digestible crude 
protein called for and also falls below the standard in dry matter and 
carbohydrates. To improve it let us substitute 5 lbs. of clover hay, 
which is high in protein, for the same weight of corn stover, and add 
0.5 lb. of protein-rich linseed meal. We then have : 

Second trial ration for maintaining 1,000-lh. ox at rest 





Dry 
matter 


Digestible nutrients 


Kutri- 


Feeding stuffs 


Crude 
protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


tive 
ratio 


Clover hay, 5 lbs 

Corn stover .5 lbs 


Lbs. 
4.36 
2.95 
8.85 
0.45 


Lbs. 
0.38 
0.07 
0.10 
0.15 


Lbs. 
1.96 
1.56 
4.26 
0.16 


Lbs. 
0.09 
0.03 
0.09 
0.03 




Oat straw 10 lbs 




Linseed meal, 0.5 lb 




Second trial ration 

VVolff-Lehmann standard . . . 


16.61 
18.00 


0.70 
0.70 


7.94 
8.00 


0.24 
0.10 


1:12.1 
1:11.8 


Excess or deficit 


—1.39 


0.0 


—0.06 


-1-0.14 





92 FEi:i)S AND TEKDING, ABRIDGED 

This ration closely approaches the standard. It falls holow by more 
tliaii 1 lb. of dry matter, but this deficiency is unimportant. The 
Woltit'-Lehmann standards were devised to cover the common, sj'stems 
of feeding in Europe, where some straw or other low grade roughage is 
commonly included in rations for horses and ruminants. When only 
such high grade roughages as silage and legume hay are used, rations 
which supply enough digestible nutrients will fall below the standard 
in dry matter. If the ration furnishes sufficient bulk to distend the 
digestive tract properly, no further attention need be paid to .such a 
deficit. The excess of fat in this case will more than make up the 
trifling deficit of carbohydrates, for fat has 2.25 times the heat value of 
carbohydrates. The nutritive ratio of this ration is 1 :12.1, which is 
close to the standard. American rations will usually furnish an excess 
of fat over the standard, in wdiich case the carbohydrates may fall 
somewhat below, as an offset. 

III. The Armsby Net Energy Values and Feeding Standards 

In Chapter III it has been pointed out that the total quantity of 
digestible nutrients in a feeding stuff is not theoretically the true 
measure of its feeding value, as is assumed in the Wolff-Lehmann 
feeding standards. Experiments by Kellner and Zuntz in Germany 
and by Armsby in this country have shown that to find the true net 
value of a feed for production it is necessary to deduct from the total 
energy furnished by the digestible nutrients in the feed, the energy 
lost in the urine and the gases produced in the digestive tract and that 
spent in the work of mastication, digestion, and assimilation. 

Net energy values. — Kellner was the first to prepare tables showing 
the net energy values of feeding stutfs. In these he took 1 lb. of 
digestible starch as his unit and expressed the net energy values of 
different feeds in terms of "starch values." He then drew up feeding 
standards based on these starch values, which are now quite largely 
used in Germany.^ We will not discuss these in detail, but will con- 
sider instead Armsby 's net energy values and feeding standards, which 
are chiefly used in this country by those desiring to compute rations 
according to the net energy system. 

From his data and that of Kellner, Armsby has prepared a table, 
based on the analyses in the Appendix Tables of Feeds and Feeding, 
which shows the net energy values of the leading American feeds. 
This table, part of which is given as Appendix Table VII of this book, 

1 For Kellner's starch values and feeding standards see his hooks, Erniihriivg 
der Land, ^^xittiiere and Fnticrungslehre, and the English translation of the 
latter hook, The Scientific Feeding of Animals. 



P^EEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS !);! 

shows also the total dry inattci- in {'acli feed and tlic diyest ihlc true 
l)ro1oiii (not dij:;estil)l(' crndc protein). 

Of all the corrals listed, it is shown thai rye has the highest net 
energy value, 93.71 therms per 100 ll)s. Due ehietly to the large 
amount of fiber contained in the hulls, the net energy value of oats 
is only 67.56 therms per 100 lbs. The roughages, which are high in 
fiber and thus require much energy in mastication and digestion, fur- 
nish nuK'h less net energy than the concentrates. AVheat straw is the 
lowest in net energy of the dry roughages listed, having a value of 
•/idy 7.22 therms per 100 lbs. 

The Armsby feeding- standards. — Armsby has recently drawn up 
revised feeding standai'ds, based on his net energy values, for main- 
taining horses, cattle, sheep, and swine, for growing cattle, sheep, and 
swine, for work horses, for milk cows, and for fattening stock. 
These are given in Appendix Table VIII, with the exception of the 
standards for milk cows, which are given on page 100. In these 
standards, it will be noted, the re(|uirements of the various classes 
of animals are expressed in terms of digestible true protein (not 
digestible crude protein) and of therms of net energy. 

In the Woltt'-Lehmann standards it is assumed that the require- 
ments for maintaining animals depend on the live weight, the 
standards giving the nutrients required per 1,000 lbs, live weight. 
Armsby, however, has computed the maintenance requirements 
separatel}^ for animals of various weights. (See Page 52.) It will 
be noted that for maintaining a 500-lb. horse 2.58 therms of net 
energy are re(|uired, while for a 1,000-11). horse only 4.10 therm.s of 
net energy are needed. Tho the second horse weighs twice as much, 
Armsby believes it does not take twice as much feed to maintain him. 

Bull and Emmet of the Illinois Station - have made a compre- 
hensive study of the American investigations in fattening lambs, and 
have presented feeding standards based thereon. These standards 
are expressed like the Armsby standards in therms of net energy, 
but give the amount of digestible crude protein re<iuired, instead of 
the amount of digestible true protein. For example, in these 
standards it is recommended that lambs weighing 50 to 70 lbs. be fed 
3.1 to 3.8 lbs. digestible crude protein and 17 to 19 therms daily per 
1,000 lbs. live weight. 

Ration for maintaining the steer.— To illustrate the method of using 

the Armsby .standards and table of net energy values, let us compute 

a ration for maintaining a mature steer weighing 1,000 lbs., when 

neither gaining nor losing weight, assuming that there are available 

^III. P.ul. 106. 



94 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



com stover, oat straw, dent corn, and cottonseed meal. According to 
the standard, an animal of tliis weiji'ht reqnires 0.5 lb. digestible protein 
and 6.0 therms of net energy. As corn stover and oat straw are much 
cheaper than the concentrates, let us first see how nearly a ration of 
these roughages alone will meet the requirements. Suppose that we 
select for a trial ration 8 lbs. of oat straw and 10 lbs. of corn stover. 
Tlie calculations will then be as follows : 

Calculations for trial ration for maintaining 1,000-lb. steer 



Corn stover 
In 100 lbs. In 10 lbs. 

Dry matter . . .81.0 -f- 100 X 10 = 8.10 Dry matter. . 
Dicr. protein... 1.6 -^ 100 X 10 = 0.16 Dig. protein. 
Net energy. . .31.62 -=- 100 X 10 = 3.16 Net energy. . 



Oat straw 
In 100 lbs. In 8 lbs. 



. . 88.5 
. . 0.8 
.34.81 



100 X 8 = 7.08 
100 X 8 = 0.06 
100 X 8 = 2.7S 



First trial ration for maintaining 1,000-lh. steer 



Feeding stuffs 


Total 
dry matter 


Digestible 
protein 


Net energy 
value 


Corn stover, 10 lbs 

Oat straw, 8 lbs 


Lbs. 
8.10 
7.08 


Lbs. 
0.16 
0.06 


Therms 
3.16 

2.78 


First trial ration 

Standard requirement . . . 


15.18 


0.22 
0.50 


5.94 

6.00 


Excess or deficit 




— 0.2S 


—0.06 



This ration furnishes enough net energy but is deficient in digestible 
protein. Corn, which is high in net energy but low in protein, will not 
improve the ration, while cottonseed meal, which is rich in protein, will 
make up the deficiency. Let us therefore substitute 1 lb. of choice 
cottonseed meal for 2 lbs. of oat straw. We then have : 

Second trial ration for maintaining 1,000-lh. steer 



Feeding stuffs 


Total 
dry matter 


Digestible 
protein 


Net energy 
value 


Corn stover, 10 lbs 

Oat straw. 6 lbs 

Cottonseed meal, 1.0 lb.... 


Lbs. 
8.10 
5.31 
0.92 


Lbs. 
0.16 
0.05 
0.35 


Therms 
3.16 
2.09 
0.93 


Second trial ration 

Standard requirement . . 


14.33 


0.50 
.50 


6.18 
6.00 


Excess or deficit 




4-0.06 


+0.18 



This ration agrees closely with the standard in digestible protein and 
net energy value. Thus, according to the Armsby standard, a satis- 
factory ration for maintaining a 1,000-lb. steer may be composed of 
10 lbs. corn stover, 6 lbs. oat straw and 1 lb. choice cottonseed meal. 



FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 95 

Discussion of the net energy systems. — Determining the net energy 
vahies of feeds is an important advance in our knowledge of their val- 
ues for productive purposes. Unfortunately, owing to the immense 
amount of labor required for each determination, data of this kind can 
be secured but slowly. In his years of study Kellner determined the 
starch values for only about a dozen feeds and in 14 years Armsby has 
been able to study only 10 feeds, several determinations of course hav- 
ing been made upon each. AYhile the results for these few feeds are 
helpful in estimating the probable net energy values of other feeds 
not yet tested, such computed results are more or less rough estimates 
of the true net energy values. 

IMoreover, both Kellner and Armsby have practically worked only 
with the steer, and the extent to which the values thus secured apply to 
other classes of animals is a question. It has been shown that they 
are too low for the dairy cow and too high for steers near the close of 
the fattening period. AVith cattle upwards of 17 per ct. of the heat 
value of the digested food is lost thru the ferinentations which take 
place in the digestive tract, especially the paunch. On the other hand, 
there is but a small loss of this kind with horses or pigs. Hence, net 
energy values found in trials with steers are more or less inaccurate 
for horses and pigs. As Kellner himself states, in spite of the vast 
amount of study given to the subject, there are still many gaps in our 
knowledge of the actual net energy values of the different feeding 
stuffs. "While the present values are not exact measures of the value of 
feeds for all classes of animals, they are, however, most helpful in 
teaching great principles in the feeding of live stock. 

IV. The Scandinavian Feed-Unit System 

A sj'stem of feed equivalents, based mainly on extensive experiments 
with milch cows at the Copenhagen Station, has been adopted in Den- 
mark and other Scandinavian countries, especially by cow-testing asso- 
ciations, for measuring the relative efficiency of milk production by 
different herds and individual cows. The system is also occasionally 
used with pigs, but rarely for other stock. It has been exceedingly 
useful in co-operative efforts to improve dairy cattle and their feed- 
ing — lines in which the Scandinavian farmers are leaders. 

The feed unit. — In the feed-unit system the value of the different 
feeds is compared with the value of 1 lb. of standard grain feed, such as 
corn and barley, which are taken as the unit of value. The amounts of 
the various feeds required to equal 1 feed unit are given in Appendix 
Table VI. 

The table shows that corn, wheat, rye, barley, hominy feed, the dry 



9() FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

matter in roots, etc., are all considered to have about the same value for 
tlie dairy cow, 1 lb. equaling 1 feed unit. On tills basis it requires 
1.1 lbs. of wiieat bran or oats, or 1.5 to 3 lbs. of alfalfa or clover hay to 
equal 1 feed unit. Cottonseed meal, linseed meal, dried distillers' 
grains, gluten feed, and soj^beans are rated at a higher value than the 
same weight of corn or wheat, less than a pound of these concentrates 
being required for a feed unit. 

The feed-unit values are not true expressions of net energy, for in 
this system feeds rich in protein are given a higher value than feeds 
low in protein which furnish the same amount of net energy. For 
exani])l(', in the feed-unit system, only 0.9 lb. of linseed meal, gluten 
feed, or distillers' grains are re(iuired lo equal 1 feed unit. Yet the 
real net energy of these feeds is lower than that of corn. Again, the 
energy value of timothy hay is higher than that of clover or alfalfa hay, 
but in the feed-unit system timothy hay is rated 50 per ct. below the 
legume hays. When added to rations too low in protein, feeds rich in 
protein will have a higher value than those supplying an equal amount 
of net energy but which are low in protein. But as has been pointed 
out in Chapters IV and V, when the ration alread}^ contains plenty of 
protein, any additional amount will have no higher value for the forma- 
tion of fat or the production of milk or work than an equal amount of 
net energy supplied by carbohydrates or fat. 

The value of any feed to the stockman depends on the other feeds 
which he has at hand. When' he has an abundance of cheap car- 
bonaceous feeds, protein-rich feeds to balance the ration will be worth 
much more to him than an additional supply of carbonaceous feeds. 
On the other hand, in the AVest with its cheap alfalfa hay and in the 
South with its low-priced cottonseed meal, feeds low in protein and rich 
in carbohydrates may often be worth more than those rich in protein. 
The feed-unit system has been developed in a comparatively small 
region, where similar crops are grown on the different farms and the 
price of purchased feeds is quite uniform thruout the entire district, 
hence this difficulty has not arisen there. No arbitrary values for feed- 
ing stuffs, expressed in terms of feed units, money, or other fixed units, 
can be devised which will hold good under such widely differing condi- 
tions as are found in the various sections of the United States. 

Measuring economy of cows in feed units. — The chief value of the 
feed unit system for dairymen is for comparing the efficiency with 
which individual cows and different herds produce milk and butter 
fat. The method of making such comparisons is as follows : 

If during a month a cow has consumed 240 lbs. of hay, 750 lbs. of 
silage, 60 lbs. each of barley and ground corn, and 90 lbs. of linseed oil 
meal, the calculation based on the valuation table would be as follows-. 



FEEDING STAN DA IvDS— CALCULATING KATIONS 07 

Feed consumed Lhs. for 1 unit Feed units 

240 lbs. hay ^ 2.0 — 0(5 

7r)() ll)s. silage -^ (i.O -^ 125 

120 Il)s. corn and Ijailov — 1.0 = 120 

90 lbs. oil meal ' -^ 0.!> rzz 100 

Total feed units = 441 

It is shown that the cow consumed 441 feed units during tlie month. 
If in that time she yielded 850 lbs. of milk, containing 30.6 lbs. of fat, 
each 100 feed units produced i^= 193 lbs. of milk, containing f^7= 
6.9 lbs. butter fat. If the fat brouuht 30 cents per pound, 100 feed 
units would return 6.9 X $0.30 = $2.07. Similar comparisons of the 
economy of production of various cows and herds may be made on the 
basis of the therms of net energy or the poujids of total digestible 
nutrients consumed.^ 



V. American Standards for Dairy Cows 

The Haecker standard. — As the result of long years of study at the 
IMinnesota Station,* Haecker has made an important advance in the 
computing of rations for the dairy cow. He has shown that the nutri- 
ents required for her nourishment should vary not only with the ({uan- 
tity of milk yielded, as is taught in the standards previously discussed, 
but also with the (juality of the product. The allowance of crude pro- 
tein recommended is also considerably lower than that set forth in the 
Wolft'-Lehmann standard. In his standard Haecker first sets down the 
total digestible nutrients daily required to maintain the 1,000-lb. cow, 
independent of the milk she produces, as follows : Crude protein 0.7 lb., 
carbohydrates 7.0 lbs., and fat 0.1 lb. For each 100 lbs. live weight the 
cow may exceed or fall below the 1,000-lb. standard there is added or 
subtracted one-tenth of the standard ration. 

To this maintenance provision the further allowance set forth in the 
table is added. 

'■^ Hansson lias proposed the following feeding standard for dairy cows accord- 
ing to the feed unit system. This is not of much interest to American dairymen, 
however, for it is less accurate than the standards of Haecker, Savage, or Eckles, 
which are described later, and which recognize the important fact that tlie feed 
requirements of dairy cows depend not only on the quantity but also on tlie 
richness of their milk. 

For maintenance, feed G5 lb. digestible protein and ().(> feed units daily per 
1,000 lbs. live weight. 

For each pound of milk produced add to the maintenance requirement 0.04.5 
to O.O.') lb. digestible protein and 0..33 feed unit. 

4 Minn, r.uls. 71, 7!), l:!(), 140. 



98 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



Haeclcr's fccilituj standard for the dairy cow 





Daily allowance of digestible nutrients 




Crude 
protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


For support of tlie 1,000-lb. cow 

To the allotruncc for support add: 

For each lb. of 3.0 j)er ct. milk 

For each lb. of 3.5 per ct. milk 

For each lb. of 4.0 per ct. milk 

For each lb. of 4.5 per ct. milk 

For each lb. of 5.0 per ct. milk 

For each lb. of 5.5 per ct. milk 

For each lb. of 0.0 per ct. milk 

For each lb. of 6.5 per ct. milk 

For each lb. of 7.0 per ct. milk 


Lbs. 
0.700 

0.047 
0.04!) 
0.054 
0.057 
0.060 
0.064 
0.067 
0.072 
0.074 


Lbs. 
7.00 

0.20 
0.22 
0.24 
0.26 
0.28 
0.30 
0.32 
0.34 
0.36 


Lbs. 
0.100 

0.017 
0.01!) 
0.021 
0.023 
0.024 
0.026 
0.028 
0.029 
0.031 



To illustrate the use of the table there are computed below the re- 
quirements of a 1,100-lb. cow producing 25 lbs. of 4 per ct. milk daily : 

Digestible ')}utrients required daiJi/ hj/ the ohove cow 







Crude 
protein 

Lbs. 
0.77 
1.35 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


For maintenance 


Ll)s. 

7.70 
6.00 


Lbs. 
0.11 


For 25 lbs. of 4 per ct. 


milk 


0.52 


Total 


2.12 


13.70 


0.03 



In the above there is first set down the maintenance allowance for 
the 1,000-lb. cow, increased by one-tenth because this cow weighs 100 
lbs. more than the standard; this is 0.77 lb. crude protein, 7.7 lbs. 
carbohydrates, and 0.11 lb. fat, all digestible. The previous table shows 
the daily nutrient allowance for each pound of 4 per ct. milk to be 
0.054 lb. crude protein, 0.24 lb. carbohydrates, and 0.021 lb. fat, all 
digestible. Since this cow is yielding 25 lbs. of milk daily, the fore- 
going numbers multiplied by 25 are placed in the second line of the 
table. Adding these nutrients to those for maintenance, we have 
2.12 lbs. of protein, 13.7 lbs. of carbohydrates, and 0.63 lb. of fat as 
the quantity of digestible nutrients required daily to nourish a 1,100-lb. 
cow properly when giving 25 lbs. of 4 per ct. milk daily. 

The WoU-Humphrey standard. — At the Wisconsin Station Woll and 
Humphrey prepared convenient tables showing the feed requirements 
of cows of different weights and producing various amounts of butter 
fat per day. To simplify the computation of rations, in these tables 
the requirements are stated in terms of dry matter, digestible crude 



Digestible 

crude 

protein 

Lbs. 


Total 
digestible 
nutrients 

Lbs. 


0.70 


7.9 


2.02 


15.4 


2.86 


19.2 


3.42 


23.0 



FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 99 

protein, and total digestible nutrients, the latter term including the 
digestible protein, the digestible carbohydrates, and tbe digestible 
fat X 2.25. This simplification agrees with tbe uses made of the dif- 
ferent nutrients in the animal body, for, as we have already learned, 
carbohydrates and fat in general perform the same functions in the 
body. Likewise, after there has been supplied the minimum amount of 
protein needed for the repair of body tissues and the formation of milk 
protein, any additional amount serves the same purposes as do the 
carbohydrates and fat. The requirements of a 1,000-lb. cow, according 
to this system,^ are shown in the following table. The allowance for 
maintenance is the same as in the Haecker standard : 

Woll-Hiimphrey standard for 1,000-Ih. dairy cow 

Dry 

matter 

Lbs. 

Dry cow 12.5 

Cow yielding 1.0 lb. fat per day 22.3 

Cow yielding 1.5 lbs. fat per dav 27.3 

Cow yielding 2.0 lbs. fat per day 30.9 

This system of expressing the requirements of dairy cows has been 
found convenient in practice. It is not strictly accurate, however, 
when applied to milks varying widely in the percentage of fat con- 
tained. Haecker 's table places the requirements for a pound of butter 
fat in rich milk considerably lower than for a pound in milk low in fat. 
For example, for 100 lbs. of 3 per et. milk there are required 4.7 lbs. 
protein, 20.0 lbs. carbohydrates, and 1.7 lbs. fat, while for 50 lbs. of 
6 per ct. milk, containing the same amount of fat, only 3.3 lbs. protein, 
16.0 lbs. carbohydrates, and 1.4 lbs. fat are required. This is due to 
the fact that, tho the 6 per ct. milk contains twice as much fat as the 
3 per ct. milk, it is not twice as rich in sugar and protein. 

The Savage standard. — From trials at the New York (Cornell) 
Station ^ Savage concludes that for maximum production the nutritive 
ratio of rations for dairy cows should not be wider than 1 :6. He has 
accordingly modified the Haecker standard by increasing the protein 
requirement per pound of milk from 18 to 20 per ct. His standard 
is also simplified by being stated in terms of dry matter, digestible 
crude protein, and total digestible nutrients (or as Savage terms it 
"total nutriment"), in the same manner as in the Woll-Humphrey 
standard. The requirements according to this standard are shown in 
the next table. 

5 Table as revised by Humphrey, unpublished data. 
eisr. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 323. 



100 



FEEDS AND FEEDIXd, AI^iniHiEI) 



The Eckles and the Armsby standards. — FroiD cxpcfiiiKMils al llie 
Missouri Slation^ and t'i'diii llic worls of Saxayc and Ai'iiishy, Fckles 
cli'ow u}) standards accordiny lo the Arnisl)y system, sliowing the re- 
quirements of cows produeing' milk containing various percentages of 
fat. ^lore recently Armsby himself has presented feeding standards 
for dairy cows, based on the net energy s^'stem. These are included 
in tlie next table. 

Comparison of standards for dairy cows. — Tn the following table 
the llaeeker. Savage, and Armsby standards are brought together for 
comparison. Haecker's tigures have been converted into total digest- 
ible nutrients as in the Savage standard. 

Feeding standards for dairy cows compared 





Hnecker standard 


Savage 


^tandard 


Armsby standard 




Diges"ble 


Total 


Diges'ble 


Total 


Diees'ble 


Net 




crude 


digestible 


crude 


disestible 


true 




protein 


nutrients 


protein 


nutrients 


protein 


energy 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Therms 


For ninintenance of 1,000 lb. 














t'OW 


0.700 


7.925 


0.700 


7,925 


0.500 


6.00 


To altowanrc fnr titainte- 




nance add : 














For each lb. of 2.5 per ct. milk. 


0.045 


0.254 


0.053 


0.257 


0.041 


0.190 


For each lb. of 3.0 per ct. milk. 


047 


0.284 


0.057 


0.287 


0.043 


0.214 


For each lb. of 3.5 per ct. milk. 


0.049 


0.313 


0.061 


0.319 


0.045 


0.238 


For each lb. of 4.0 per ct. milk. 


0.054 


0.343 


0.065 


0.350 


0.049 


0.2G5 


For each lb. of 4.5 per ct. milk. 


0.057 


0.372 


0.069 


0.379 


0.052 


0.291 


For each lb. of 5.0 per ct. milk. 


0.060 


0.398 


0.073 


0.405 


0.055 


0.315 


For each lb. of 5.5 per ct. milk. 


0.064 


0.424 


0.077 


0.431 


0.058 


0.338 


For each lb. of G.O per ct. milk. 


0.067 


0.451 


0.081 


0.457 


O.OGl 


0.361 


For each lb. of 6.5 per ct. milk. 


0.072 


0.480 


0.085 


0.484 


0.064 


0.385 


For each lb. of 7.0 per ct. milk. 


0.074 


0.502 


0.089 


0.508 


0.06S 


0.408 



The Ilatcker and Savage standards agree in the requirements for 
maintenance. Savage's digestible crude-protein requirement for pro- 
duction is higher in each case, as already pointed out. In total digest- 
ible nutrients he agrees quite closely with Haecker. As Armsby 's 
standard is expressed in digestible true protein (not crude protein) 
and therms, it cannot be directly compared with the others. By com- 
puting the amount of true protein and crude protein in typical good 
dairy rations, it will be found that if Armsby 's figures were changed 
into crude protein they would be fully as high as the recommenda- 
tions of Savage. Similar comparisons show that the Armsby standard 
calls for less total nutrients and hence re(|uires less concentrates than 
the other standards. An experiment l)y Morrison, Humphrey, and 
Putney at the Wisconsin Station shows that cows fed enough con- 
centrates to meet the requirements of the Savage standards pro- 
duced slightly more milk and butter fat than when fed enough to 
meet the Armsby standards. However Avith feeds at 1918 prices 
milk and butter fat v/ere produced at slightly lower cost on the 



i^EEUiNG STA2JDAiiDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 101 

Armsby ration. From tliis wc may conclude that wlicii high produc- 
tion is desired, it is necessary to feed as much concentrates as called 
for in the Savage or Haecker standards, but when the object is 
economy of production, it is best to feed slightly less concentrates if 
they are high priced compared with roughages. Likewise, when 
protein-rich feeds are high in price it may h? most economical to feed 
only as much protein as recommended in the Haecker standards. These 
facts are taken into consideration in the IMorrison standards. The 
skilled dairyman Avill not compute a ration for each of his cows, but 
will follow one of the general rules for feeding given on Page 260. 

VI. Morrison Feeding Standards 

Methods of computing rations compared. — In this chapter it has 
been pointed out that valuing feeds for productive purposes on the 
basis of their net energy content, is theoretically more accurate than 
the AYolff-Lehmann method of comparing them in terms of the 
digestible nutrients they furnish. Unfortunately, the net-energy 
values have been determined for but a few feeds, and with these only 
for the fattening steer. For other feeds and other classes of animals, 
the values which may be computed are but approximations. On the 
other hand, during the last half-century scores of thousands of analyses 
of feeding stuffs have been made, as shown in Appendix. Table I, and 
large numbers of digestion experiments have been conducted in which 
the coefficients of digestibility have been determined, as given in Appen- 
dix Table II. Thus, the values for digestible nutrients in the various 
feeding-stuffs, given in Appendix Table III, rest on a reasonably secure 
basis, tho we must remember that different kinds of animals digest 
somewhat different percentages of feeds, especially of roughages. 

The value of a concentrate and of a roughage for productive purposes 
cannot be compared on the basis of the digestible nutrients each fur- 
nishes, for in the roughage, containing more fiber, a larger part of the 
energy in the digested nutrients is used up in the non-productive work 
of mastication, digestion, and assimilation. In the ordinary rations 
for each class of animals, concentrates and roughages are, however, 
usually fed in about the same proportions. This tends to lessen any 
error due to inaccuracy in computing rations according to the Wolff- 
Lehmann method. 

Furthermore, in this method a definite amount of drj^ matter is pre- 
scribed. If a ration contains sufficient digestible nutrients to meet the 
Wolff-Lehmann standards, but carries too much dry matter, obviously 
too much roughage or concentrates too high in fiber have been used, 
and the net-energy value will consequently be too low. On the other 
hand, if the content of digestible nutrients satisfies the standard, while 



102 FEKDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

Iho ration, does not contain the dry matter called for, it shows that 
feeds more concentrated in character than necessary have been used. 
In this case some roughaiie or feeds higher in fiber may ])e substi- 
tuted till the dry-matter content is brought up to the standard. 

Necessity for modifying the Wolff-Lehmann standards. — It has 
already been shown in this (']ia])tt'r tluit the original Wolff-Lehmann 
standards are iimceurate in nuiiiy respects and do not meet present- 
day American conditions. We know, for example, that the allowance 
of digestible crude protein advised is higher than is needed by fat- 
tening animals, dairy cows, and work horses. Yet, until the stand- 
ards described below were prepared, the original Wolff-Lehmann 
standards were more commonly used in this country, except perhaps 
for dairy cows, than any other system for balancing rations. Lideed, 
the authors have recently found feeders, annually fattening hundreds 
and even thousands of animals, who were balancing rations accord- 
ing to the original Wolff-Lehmann standards by the addition of en- 
tirely unnecessary amounts of high-priced protein-rich concentrates. 

Morrison feeding standards. — Appreciating the vital need for up- 
to-date standards whicii meet American conditions, there have been 
combined into the ^lorrison or modified Wolff-Lehmann feeding 
standards what appear to be the best guides we have at present in 
balancing rations for the different classes of farm animals. To 
make the computations as easy as possible, the standards, which 
are given in detail in Appendix Table V, are expressed simply in 
terms of total dr^^ matter, digestible crude protein, and total di- 
gestible nutrients. Realizing that feeding standards are but ap- 
proximations, in most cases minimum and maximum figures are given 
for dry matter, digestible crude protein, and total digestible nutrients. 
Since progressive feeders thruout the country now appreciate the 
significance of the nutritive ratio of a ration, the approximate upper 
and lower advisable limits of nutritive ratios for the different classes 
have been stated. To correspond with these standards, Appendix 
Table III contains a column showing the total digestible nutrients 
furnished in 100 lbs. of each feed. Likewise, so that one may see 
at a glance which feeds are high and which are low in protein, com- 
pared with carbohydrates and fat, the nutritive ratio for each feed 
has ])een computed and is given in the table. With these aids it is 
hoped that these standards may be of real assistance to students and 
feeders who desire to compute rations substantially in accordance 
with the Wolff-Lehmann method, while recognizing the results of the 
later investigations in animal feeding. 



FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING KA'l'lONS 



io;i 



Ration for a work horse. — To illustrate the manner of using the 
Morrison standards, let us compute a ration for a l,4G0-lb. horse 
at hard work. The standard for horses at hard work calls for 18.0- 
22.0 lbs. of dry matter, 1.5-1.8 lbs. digestible crude protein, and 
13.0-15.0 lbs. total digestible nutrients per 1,000 lbs. live weight. 
(See Ai)pendix Table V.) The nutritive ratio should not be wider 
than 1.7.6-1.8.1. :\lultiplying the re(|iiirements for 1,000 lbs. by 1.4, 
we tind that this l,l()0-lb. horse will re(|uire 25.2-30.8 lbs. dry matter, 
2.10-2.52 lbs. digestible crude protein, and 18.2-2.10 lbs. total di- 
gestible nutrients. 

Let us suppose that this is to be a corn-belt ration and that dent 
corn is the cheapest grain available. For roughage we have plenty 
of timothy hay and good, bright, clover ha}'. According to the rule 
on Page 88, work horses should be given 2 to 2.5 lbs. of feed (rough- 
ages and concentrates combined) daily per 100 lbs. live weight. 
Horses at medium to hard work will need 0.7 to 1.4 lbs. concentrates 
daily per 100 lbs. live weight. As it is costly to feed more grain 
than necessary, we will take for a trial ration the minimum amount 
of corn (0.7 lb. X 14=^9.8 lbs., or about 10 lbs.) and enough hay 
to make 2 lbs. total feed for each 100 lbs. the horse weighs, or 18 lbs. 
of hav. 



First trial ration for l/iOO-lh. horse at hard work 



Feeding stuffs 


Dry 
matter 


Dig. 
crude 
protein 


Total 
dig. nu- 
trients 


Nutri- . 
tive 
ratio 


Dent corn. 10 lbs 

Timothy hay, 18 lbs 


Lbs. 

S.n.5 

15.91 


Lbs. 
0.75 
0.54 


Lbs. 

S.57 
8.73 




Total 


24.8fi 


1.29 


17..30 


1 :12.4 







This ration furnishes nearly as much total digestible nutrients as is 
called for in the standard, Init falls far short in crude ]irokMn, having 
the very wide ratio of 1:12.4. We can bring the crude protein up to 
the standard by substituting protein-rich concentrates for a consider- 
able part of the corn, but this will add to the expense, for we have 
assumed that corn is the cheapest grain available. Tho timothy hay is 
more commonly fed to horses than any other in the northeastern 
United States, good, bright, clover hay, which is rich in protein, is 
practically as satisfactory for work horses. Let us then see how near 
we will come to meeting the standard if we substitute clover hay for 
half the timothv hav and add 2 lbs. of corn to bring the total digestible 



104 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



iiiitririils up lu the staiulurd. Arranging the results as briorr, we 
will have : 



Second trial raliun fur Jj'OO-lh. horse at hard work 



Feeding stuffs 



Dry 

matter 



Dig. 
crude 
protein 



Total 
dig. nu- 
trients 



Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 



TiiiK.tliy liay. !) II 
('li)ver liii\ . !t lbs. 
Dent cmii, 12 lbs. 

Total 



Lbs. 

7.!)G 

7.84 

10.74 



Lbs. 
0.27 
0.(i8 
0.!)0 



Lbs. 

4..30 

4.58 

10.28 



26.r)4 



1.8.) 



10.2:; 



1 :!l.4 



This ration is still somewhat below the standard in digestible crude 
])rotein, but it will supply sufficient total digestible nutrients unless 
the horse is working extremely hard. To furnish the necessary crude 
protein we could substitute clover hay for the rest of the timothy 
hay, and then have as the ration, 18 lbs. clover hay and 12 lbs. dent 
corn. This would supply 2.27 lbs. digestible protein and 19.44 lbs. 
total digestible nutrients, and would have a nutritive ratio of 1 :7 6. 
This ration would fully meet the standard and would be economical 
under most conditions. 

We could also balance the ration by substituting 1 lb. of choice 
cottonseed meal for 1 lb. of dent corn, as is shown in the following 
table. 

Third trial ration for lAOO-lh. horse at hard work 



Feeding stuffs 



Dry 
natter 


Dig. 
crude 


Total 
dig. nu- 


Nutri- 
tive 


protein 


trients 


ratio 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 




7.00 


0.27 


4.r,r. 




7.84 


O.GS 


4..-)S 




0.84 


0.82 


0.4;) 




0.02 


0..37 


0.78 





Timothy hay, ll)s 

Clover hay, lbs 

Dent corn. 11 lbs 

Cottonseed meal, ehoite. 1 

Total 



?r)..-)0 



2.14 



10. i; 



1:7.0 



This ration meets the standard in all particulars and will give good 
results in practice. It should not be fed blindly, however, for some 
horses are hard and others easy keepers. Therefore, if the horse loses 
weight on this ration, increase the allowance of corn gradually. On 
the other hand, if he is an easy keeper and becomes too fat, cut down 
the amount of corn. Other protein-rich feeds, such as wheat bran, 
dried brewers' grains or linseed meal, could be used just as satis- 



FEKUIXG STAXDAKUS— CALClLATIXa KATloNS lo:, 

fuetorily as cuttoiiseed meal in balancing the ration, the choice de- 
pending on the ])rices of tlie various feeds available. 

Guides in computing economical rations. — Before attempting to 
compute rations for any class of stock, it is important to study care- 
fully the explanations and general hints on Pages 86-90 and in the 
next chapter. It is impossible to comjMite satisfactory and economical 
i-ations if reliance is i)laced only on the mathematical recommenda- 
tions of the feeding standards. As is explained on these pages, other 
factors are just as important as the amounts of digestible protein 
and of total digestible nutrients. The special rules and hints on feed- 
ing each class of stock, which will be found on the following pages, 
should also be consulted : 

Dairy cows, 258-62. Fattening laml)s, :330-3. 

Fattening steers, 292, 295-6. Breeding ewes, 326-8. 

Beef breeding cows. 300-1 Growing, fattening pigs, 34B, 
Horses. 227-8, 229-30. 358-60. 

Brood mares, 230-1. Brood sows, 354-6. 

Growing colts, 232-4. PouHiy, 380, 384-6, 394-5. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Wliat aiT till' I'ssc-ntials of a satisfactory lation? 

2. t'oiii|)u(e a ration for a 1,400-11). iiorse at mcdiuni work acc'ordinjr to tlic 
WolU'-Lehniaiin standard. In this and tlie following iiroliii-nis nso feods availaldo 
in your local district ;ui(l lind tlic cost oi the ration at local prices. 

.'}. Wherein do the Ami-^liy and K(dlncr standards diller from tlic W'olll- 
Lehniann standards? 

4. Compute a r;ltion for maintaiiiing a l.iitlO-ll). steer according to the Arnisliy 
standard. 

."). During a month a cow prodnced '.i-Jd lh>. of milk Kiiitaining ;!.S per el. 
Initter fat. She ate :!(i(l llis. of alfalfa lia\ . '.Hid lljs. corn silage. 120 His. corn 
meal, and 00 liis. wheat hraii. How iiiiicli milk and how much luittcr fat did 
she yield per KM) feed units? 

(I. ^^"hat are the (list ingiiishing featuies of the llaeeker standard for dairy 
cows ? 

7. Wlierein does the Woll-lliimphrey standard diller from the Ilacckcr 
standard ? 

8. Compare the amounts of iirotcin and total digcslihle nutiienls recommended 
in the Savage and .Xrmshy standards witli the llaeeker standard. 

9. How do tile .Morrison or modiiied W'olirLelimann standards diller from the 
original WollV-Lelimann standards? 

10. Com])nte a ration for a 1.400 liorse at medium work aceoiding to the Modified 
Woill'-Lelimann standard. How does this ration diller from the one given in the 
book for tlie horse at liard work? 

11. Com])Ule rations for fattening -iyear-idd steers on full feed (ai for the 
first oO days wlu-n the steers average I. mo Ihs. in weight, ihi for tlie second oO 
days when they average 1.210 llis.. and ici for tlie last .')ii (lay> when they 
average ].:'.i2i) Ihs. 



CHAPTER VIII 

ECONOMY IN FEEDING LIVE STOCK 

I. Selecting Economical Rations 

To secure the largest returns, the stockman must, first of all, under- 
stand the fundamental principles governing the feeding of the various 
classes of live stock, discussed in the preceding chapters. lie must 
next study the possibilities of his farm for crops, paying attention to 
both their probable yield and their value for feeding to stock or for 
sale. It is also necessary to consider the feeding value and compare 
the prices of the many feeds which can be secured on the market. 
With this knowledge he is in a position to plan his rotations so that 
from the crops raised, supplemented by purchased feeds when it is 
economical, well-balanced rations may be provided at the least expense. 
As a rule it is wise to raise all roughage on the farm. Owing to the 
demand for the cereal grains for human consumption, it is often eco- 
nomical to sell more or less of the farm-grown grains and replace them 
with purchased concentrates which may economically supplement the 
feeds raised on the farm. 

Market prices not guides to value. — The market price of a feed is 
often no index of its value to the individual stockman, as a few 
examples will illustrate : In the northeastern states timothy hay is 
generally higher in price than clover hay, tho much inferior for all 
animals except the horse. In the South cottonseed hulls usually cost 
more than the sum for which an equivalent amount of corn silage, a 
much more palatable feed, can be produced on the farm. Owing to 
their popularity, some feeds, such as linseed meal and wheat bran, are 
often high in price compared with other concentrates which are entirely 
satisfactory substitutes. At the other extreme, low grade concentrates, 
such as trashy com and oat feed, cottonseed feed, and inferior mixed 
feeds, often sell for as much or but slightly less than high grade con- 
centrates. 

How to select feeds for economical rations. — Many attempts have 
been made to assign a definite money value to 1 lb. of digestible crude 
protein, digestible carbohydrates, and digestible fat, and then compute 
the value of different feeds on the basis of the amount of these nutrients 
they contain, similar to the manner of arriving at the money value of 

lOG 



ECONOMY IN FEEDING LIVE STOCK 107 

fertilizers. (See Chapter XVII.) While such a system may be of 
limited value for a short period of time and when applied to small 
districts where the systems of farming: do not differ widely, no such 
set of values can be applied generally tliruout the United States. This 
is because the value of any given feed to the stockman depends on the 
nature and composition of the other feeds he has on hand at the par- 
ticular time. If his chief roughage is alfalfa hay, protein-rich concen- 
trates are often worth less to him than those rich in carbohydrates. 
On the other hand, if his roughage is mostly corn or sorghum silage, 
low in protein, then protein-rich concentrates will be of higher value to 
him than those of carbonaceous character. 

In comparing the relative cheapness of different feeds, it is reason- 
able to value marketable farm-grown feeds at the market price less the 
cost of hauling to market. Feeds not marketable may be assigned a 
value based on the cost of production. To the price of any purchased 
feeds should be added any cost of hauling to the farm, tho often they 
may be brought to the farm on a return trip from market with little 
or no additional expense. In selling crops and buying feed the prudent 
farmer-stockman will alwa^ s take into account the value of the fertility 
gained or lost in the transaction, 

In planning economical rations for any class of animals the stock- 
man should first choose a combination, containing the proper propor- 
tion of concentrates and roughages, which wdll supply the necessary 
total amount of nutrients at the minimum expense. If this ration is 
too low in protein, the supply should be brought to the desired amount 
by substituting protein-rich feeds for those lower in protein. On the 
other hand, if the ration is too rich in protein, then carbonaceous feeds 
should be substituted until the nutritive ratio is widened sufficiently. 

To determine which feeds are the cheapest supplements to balance a 
ration low in protein, it will be found convenient to compute the cost 
of the different feeds per pound of digestible crude protein. 

A comparison of corn-belt feeds for milk production. — To show 
how the prices of the available feeds should be studied in computing 
rations, let us assume that a dairyman in the corn belt has plenty of 
red clover hay, timothy hay, and corn silage for roughage, and also has 
considerable corn, oats, and barley. He wishes to feed the grain which 
is cheapest, considering its actual feeding value, and to sell the rest. 
Red clover hay is worth $14 per ton on the farm; timothy hay, $15; 
and corn silage, .$4.50. Shelled corn is worth 56 cts. a bushel ; oats, 35 
cts. ; and barley, 55 cts. Adding $2 a ton for grinding, the cost of 
ground corn will be $22.00 a ton ; of oats $23.88 ; and of barley, $24.92. 
He can purchase hominy feed at $25.00 per ton, wheat bran at $25.00, 



lOS 



l-'KI-:i)S AM) VI-:KI)1.\(!. AI'.KIDGIvI) 



yliifeii feed at .$30.00, choice cottonseed meal at $35.00, linseed meal at 
.$35.00, and alfalfa meal at $25.00. For convenience we will arrange in 
tabular form the data from Ap])endix Table TTT for these different 
feeds, and compute the cost per pound of diffostible crude protein and 
the cost of 1 111. of total di.ti'cstilile nuti'ients in each. 

Coinparison of ihe cconomij of various feeds at the prices stated 



Feeding stuff 



Farm grown grains 
Dent corn, ground. . . . 

Oats, ground 

Barley, ground 

Purchased concentrates 

Hominy feed 

Wheat bran 

Gluten feed 

Cottonseed meal, choice 
Linseed meal, old pro- 
cess 

Roughages 

Timothy ha}' 

Red clover hay 

Corn silage 

Alfalfa meal 



Dry 
matter 
in 100 



Lbs. 

89.5 
90.8 
90.7 

89.9 
89.9 
91.3 
92.5 

90.9 

88.4 
87.1 
26.3 
91.2 



Dig. 

crude 

protein 

in 100 lbs. 



Lbs. 

7.5 
9.7 
9.0 

7.0 
12.5 
21.6 
37.0 

30.2 

3.0 

7.6 

1.1 

10.2 



Total 

dig. 

nutrients 

in 100 lbs 



Lbs. 
85.7 

70.4 
79.4 

84.6 
60.9 
80.7 
78.2 

77.9 

48.5 
50.9 
17.7 
50.7 



Nutritive 
ratio 



Price 
per ton 



Cost 

per lb. of 

dig. crude 

protein 



Cost 
per lb. 
of total disr. 
nnfrienis 



1: 
10.4 

6.3 

7.8 

11.1 

3.9 
2.7 
1.1 



Dollars 

22.00 
23.88 
24.92 

25.00 
25.00 
30.00 
35.00 



1.6 35.00 



15. 

5. 



15.1 

4.0 



15.00 

14.00 

4.50 

25.00 



Cents 

14.67 
12.31 
13.84 

17.86 

10.00 

6.94 

4.73 

5.79 

25.00 

9.21 

20 . 45 

12.25 



Cents 

1.28 
1.70 
1.57 

1.48 
2.05 
1.86 
2.24 

2.25 

1.55 
1.38 
1.27 
2.47 



This table does not a.ssume to represent average conditions in any 
district of the country, but shoAvs how any stockman may compare the 
relative economy of the different available feeds at local prices. The 
la.st column shows clearly that, for the feeds given and Avith jM-iccs 
as stated, corn is decidedly the chcai)est source of total digestible 
nutrients among the concentrates. Of the roughages, corn silage sup- 
plies total digestible nutrients most cheaply, closely followed by clover 
hay. For balancing a ration low in protein, cotton.seed meal will 
furnish digestible crude protein at 4.73 cts. per pound, linseed meal 
at 5.79, gluten feed at 6.94 cts., red clover hay at 9.21 cts., 
and Avheat bran at 10.00 cts. In supplying protein these feeds will 
of course also furnish carbohydrates and fat as well, Avhieh are in- 
cluded in the total digestible nutrients. 

A corn-belt ration for milk production. — From the feeds listed let 
us now formulate the most economical ration which will be .satis- 
factory for a 1,200-lb. coav yielding daily 30 ll)s. of 3.5 per ct. milk. 
For this cow there will be required, according to Ihe ]\lon-ison feed- 
ing standard (Appendix Table V), a minimum daily allowance of 
2.31 to 2.07 lbs. digestible ci'ude ]M'o1ciii and 18.03 to']S.09 lbs. tolal 
digest iblc nut ricnls. As is ])oinlc(l out on Pages 110 and 425. feed- 



ECONOMY IX FEEDING LIVE STOCK 



100 



i)i<; llic ku'gcr jiiiioiiiils {)( protein and tolal (li,u(>st il)l(' milriciits will 
iTsult ill grcatei' {hmmIiicI ion, l)ut sonictinics nia\- iiol 1»(> iiiosi pro(ilal)lr. 
The ration should contain from 25 to 30 lbs. of dry matter, and should 
have a nutritive ratio no wider than 1 :6 to 1 :7.2. 

Altho corn silap:e is the cheapest roughage available, some dry 
roughage should be fed Avith it to dairy cows. Of the dr}' rough- 
ages, clover hay is the clieapest. Lot us then follow the general rule 
of feeding 1 lb. of dry roughage and 3 lbs. of silage per 100 lbs. live 
weight. To this allowance of roughage, we will add enough corn to 
bring the total digestible nutrients up to the amount advised in the 
standard, for corn is the eoncenti'ate which furnishes total digestible 
nutrients most cheaply. Tabulating the results we will have : 

First trial riition for corn-helt ddirii cow 



Fecdiiis stuff 


Dry 

matter 


Digestible 
crude 
protein 


Totiil 
liigestiblo 
nutrients 


Cost 


Nutritive 
ratio 


Clover hay, 12.0 lbs. . 
Corn silage, 36.0 lbs. . 
Corn, dent, 8.0 lbs. . . 


Lbs. 

10.45 
9.47 
7.16 


Lbs. 

0.912 
. 396 
0.600 


Lbs. 
6.108 

6.372 
6.856 


Cents 

8.40 
8.10 
8.80 




Tot:il 


27.08 


1.908 


19.336 


25 . 30 


1:0 .1 







This ration, which costs 25.30 ets., meets the standard in total 
digestible nutrients and dry matter, but is very deficient in protein. 
We could narrow the nutritive ratio by feeding less silage and more 
clover hay, but corn silage is cheaper. Therefore we should substi- 
tute protein-rich concentrates for a part of the corn. 

If 1.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal was substituted for 1.5 lbs. corn, 
the ration would furnish 2.3 lbs. of digestible crude protein, the 
minimum recommended in the standard. Ground corn and cotton- 
seed meal are, however, both heavy feeds, weighing about 1.5 lbs. per 
quart. (Appendix Table IX.) To furnish more protein and also 
more bulk in the concentrate mixture and a greater variety of feeds, let 
us substitute for 3.5 lbs. of corn the following: 1.5 lbs. wheat bran 
(bulln", palatable, and fairly economical at these prices) ; 1.0 lb. 
gluten feed (rich in protein and bulkier than cottonseed meal) ; and 
1.0 lb. cottonseed meal. We will then have the ration given on the 
next page. 

This supplies the minimum amount of protein recommended by the 
standard, and is slightly above it in total digestible nutrients. Tho 
costing 2.05 cts. more than the first ration, it is more economical, for 
it will produce much better results. 



no 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

Second trial nilion for corn-helt dairy cow 







Digestible 


lutal 






Feeding stuff 


Drv 


crude 


digestible 


Cost 


Nutritive 




matter 


l)roteiii 


nutrients 




ratio 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Cents 




Clover hay, 12.0 lbs. .. 


10.45 


0.912 


6.108 


8 . 40 




Corn silage, 36.0 ll.s. . 


9.47 


0.396 


6.372 


8.10 




Corn, dent, 4.5 ll)s. . . . 


4.03 


. U'!^ 


3 . 856 


4.95 




Cottonseed meal, 1.0 Ih. 


0.92 


0.370 


0.782 


1.75 




(iliiten feed, 1.0 11) 


91 


0.216 


0.807 


1.50 




Wheat bran, 1 .5 ll)s. . . 


1.35 


0.188 


0.914 


1.88 




Totnl . . 


27.13 


2.420 


18.839 


26 . 58 


1-6 8 







It was explained in Chapter VII that the lower amounts of dif?cst- 
ible crude protein advised for the dairy cow in the Morrison standards 
are the amounts recommended by Haecker, while the higher figures 
are those advised by Savage. (Appendix Table Y.) High-producing 
cows should be fed as much protein as called for by the higher 
figures, if this does not greatly increase the cost of the ration. Let us 
then see how cheaply a ration can be provided containing 2.67 lbs. 
digestible crude protein, the higher figure advised by the standard. 
The protein can be added most cheaply by substituting 0.75 lb. more 
cottonseed meal for corn, as shown in the table : 

Third trial ratio}} for ror}\-l}ctt daini coir 



Feeding gt'.;fl" 


Dry 

matter 


Digestible 

crude 

protein . 


Total 
digestible 
nutrients 


Cost 


Nutritive 
ratio 


Clover hay, 12 lbs 

Corn silage, 36 lbs 

Corn, 3.75 lbs 

Cottonseed meal, 
1.75 lbs 


Llis. 

10,45 

9.47 

3.36 

1.62 
0.91 
1.35 


Lbs. 
912 
0.396 
0.281 

0.(>48 
0.216 
0.188 


Lbs. 
6 108 
6.372 
3.214 

• 1.368 
0.807 
0.914 


Cei^ts 

8.40 
8.10 
4.12 

3.06 
1.50 
1.88 




Gluten feed, 1.01b. . .. 
Wheat bran, 1 .5 lbs. . . 




Total 


27.16 


2.641 


18.783 


27.06 


1:6.1 



This ration, which has a nutritive ratio of 1 :6.1, costs 0.48 cts. 
more than the preceding one. Whether it will produce enough more 
milk to pa}^ for the increased cost will depend on how pronounced is 
the dairy temperament of the particular cow. Some dairymen might 
prefer to substitute 1 lb. of linseed meal for 1 lb. of cottonseed meal, 
thus providing still greater variety. At the prices stated this change 
would not increase the cost, but would lower the protein a trifle. 
Reducing the coi^n 0.75 lb. would bring the total digestible nutrient.? 



ECONOMY IN FEED1NC4 LIVE ST(JCK 111 

to 18.140 lbs., about the lower figure recommended in the standard, 
saving 0.82 cents. "When concenti-ates are high in price, this might be 
economical, except for high producing cows. 

A cotton-belt ration for milk production. — In the preceding exam- 
ple, corn among the concentrates and corn silage among the rough- 
ages furnished total digestible nutrients most cheaply. Therefore, 
the greater the amount of protein-rich feeds used in the ration, the 
higher was the cost. Often conditions are just opposite to this. For 
example, often in the South cottonseed meal, which is extremely rich 
in protein, furnishes total digestible nutrients most cheaply. Accord- 
ingly the cheapest ration would be one in which, cottonseed meal was 
the only concentrate fed. HoAvever, it is not safe to feed cows such a 
large amount of cottonseed meal as this would require, as is pointed out 
on Page 271. Cottonseed meal is not only poisonous when fed in too 
large amounts, but it is too rich in protein and too heavy to be fed as 
the sole concentrate to dairy cows. It would therefore be necessary 
to substitute feeds which were lower in protein and bulkier for some of 
the cottonseed meal, even tho this would slightly increase the cost. 

II. Adapting Systems of Feeding to Local Conditions 

Amount of protein to supply. — The illustrations given in the pre- 
ceding articles show clearly that rations should be adapted to the local 
conditions. Feeding standards set forth approximately the amount 
of protein and total nutrients, which, it is believed, should be fur- 
nished for the maximum production of flesh, milk, work, etc., and for 
the highest well-being of the animal. In the Morrison standards a 
range is indicated in the amount of digestible crude protein advised for 
most classes of animals. For example, for 2-year-old steers on full 
feed from 2.0 to 2.3 lbs. of digestible crude protein per 1,000 lbs. live 
weight are recommended for the first 50-60 days of fattening. \Vhen 
protein-rich feeds cost but little or no more than carbonaceous feeds, 
it is well to feed as much protein as indicated by the higher figures. On 
the other hand, when corn or the other grains are relatively cheap it 
may be better economy to feed no more protein than called for by the 
lower figures. For example, corn and clover hay alone make a fairly 
well-balanced ration for fattening cattle and sheep, but the gains are 
usually slightly increased and a higher finish secured when a small 
amount of a protein-rich concentrate, like linseed meal is fed. Whether 
tliis will be profitable or not depends on the prices of the feeds and on 
whether the market will pay a better price for the more highly finished 
animal. Rarely is it advisable to feed much less protein than the 
lower figures, for the production will be then lowered. 



112 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



Wlion protoin-rit'li feeds arc cliea])pr tlian tliosc carbonaeeons in 
cliaraeler, as in the cotton belt and the aH'aH'a distfiets of the West, 
it will be economy to feed nnicli more than the minimum amounts of 
protein set forth in the standards. However, protein should not be 
supplied in such excess as to injure the health of the animals. 

Proportion of concentrates and roughages. — To meet the stand- 
ards for fattening cattle and sheep and for milch cows, fairly liberal 
amounts of concentrates are required. AVhen concentrates furnish 
total digestible nutrients nearly as cheaply as do roughages it is ad- 
visable to feed as large a proportion of concentrates as is called for 
bv the standards. On the other hand, in many of the alfalfa districts 




Fig. 29. — Fattening Beef Cattle on Grass in *rHE Corn Belt 

On liigh i)rict'd land, with few acres unsuited for tillage, the stockman has pon- 
oraliy found it more profitable to fatten feeder cattle brought from the ranges, 
tlian to raise liis own feeders. 



of the AVest, grain is usually high in price compared with alfalfa hay. 
Here it may be more profitable to restrict the grain allowance, even 
tho fjains are slower. 

With dairy cows much depends on the productive capacity of the 
animal. Except when concentrates are unusually high in price, the 
cow of good dairy temperament will pay for at least a fair amount of 
concentrates. On the contrary, for a cow of low productive capacity 
the most economical ration may be silage and legume hay with no con- 
centrates. 

Roughing growing animals thru the winter. — The recommenda- 
tions of the standards for growing cattle and sheep are based upon 
continuous thrifty growth, and hence call for a limited allowance of 
concentrates in addition to roughage. The breeder of pure-bred ani. 



ECONOMY IN FEEDING LIVE STOCK 



113 



nials Avlio Avislics to dovolo]) the l)ost there is in liis yoimi^ stock will 
W'vd the concentrates needed to keep them jztow injj,' rapidly. On the 
other hand, the western beef producer may find it most prolitable to 
carry young stock thru the winter on roughage alone or with but a 
small allowance of concentrates. Thus fed, they will gain in frame, 
and, tho losing in flesh, will be thrifty enough in the spring to make 
good gains on the cheap pasturage. 

Finish animals to meet demands of the market. — The wise stock- 
man will keep in close touch with the demands of the market and ad- 
just his feeding operations accordingly. If the market paj's a suf- 
licient preminm .for thoroly fattened animals, he will finish his stock 
well before marketing them. On the other hand, for local markets 




Fig. 30. — A Beef Farm in Northeastern Kansas 

On this farm tlio bottom lands arc in corn and tlio slopinfj liillsides in liay, 
wliile tlie broken limestone bills in the background are suitable for pasture. 
Here beef calves are raised and also fattened for market. (From U. S. Uejjart- 
ment of Agriculture.) 



which pay no more for a prime carcass than for one carrying less fat, 
it w^ill not pay to prolong the fattening process or to feed as heavy an 
allowance of concentrates as is necessary to make the carcass "ripe," 
or thoroly fat. 

Adapt type of farming to local conditions. — It is outside the field 
of this volume to discuss in detail the many factors Avhicli the stock- 
man should take into consideration in deciding the type of live-stock 
husbandry in which to engage and the systems and methods to follow. 
The foregoing ]iaragraphs serve to illustrate how the farm operations 
and practices should be suited to local conditions, taking into consid- 
eration prices of land and labor, nearness to maj'ket, and available 
crops. For example, the beef producer on high-priced land in the 



114 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



eastern part of the corn belt will generally crowd his calves to rapid 
growth on a heavy allowance of grain and fatten them as baby beef. 
Or he will raise no cattle, but fatten feeder steers from the western 
ranges on a liberal allowance chiefly of corn. On the other hand, in 
the West, where pasture is cheap compared with grain, the stockman 
will usually follow a less intensive system, roughing his growing stock 
thru the winter and marketing them from grass as 2- or 3-year-olds, 
having been fed little grain at any time. 

Milk for our cities must come from the surrounding districts which 
are within shipping distance. Dairymen maintaining herds on high- 




'FiG. 31. — ^Beef Cattle on the Western Kange 

In the range districts of the West pasturage is cheap, but concentrates are high 
in price. Hence beef cattle are raised on the range and sold as feeders to be 
fattened in the corn belt or other grain raising districts. (From Breeder's 
Gazette.) 

priced land to meet this demand properly tend to use a minimum 
acreage as pasture, relying largely on corn silage or soilage during 
the summer months. They often buy much of their concentrates, for 
grain can be produced on land farther from market and shipped in 
at less expense than it may be possible to grow it on their farms. 
Such a system is not, however, economical for the dairyman remote 
from the large markets, whose milk is used in the manufacture of 
butter or cheese. He must adopt a less intensive system of dairying, 
where the herd is maintained largely on pasture in the summer, since 
with him land is relatively less expensive than labor. 

The student will realize as he goes on in this book that, while there 
are no hard and fast rules for successfully managing live stock, a clear 
understanding of the principles of the nutrition of animals is essen- 
tial to the highest success. This must be supplemented by good judg- 



ECONOMY IN FEEDING LIVE STOCK 115 

raent and by a thoro knowledge of the farm animals themselves, which 
can only 1)0 gained by actnal experience. He will further find that 
expensive buildings for housing stock and conii)lex devices for feed- 
ing and earing for them are not necessary; that there are no "best" 
feeds for all conditions; that elaborate and laborious preparation of 
feed is often wasted; tiiat patent stock foods guaranteed to work 
miracles enrich, not the farmer, but the mainifacturer. 

On the other hand, he will come to appreciate that a proper bal- 
ancing of the rations for his stock not only benefits the animals, but 
also increases his profits; that comfort for farm stock can be secured 
in inexpensive, easy ways, and that the operations of preparing and 
administering feed are really simple when once understood. He will 
further come to the deep and fundamental realization that animal 
husbandry under normal conditions is most successful when combined 
with general farming and the raising of farm crops; that it rests 
upon pasture lots which are fertilized so as to produce abundant 
forage and upon tilled fields which are so managed that the fertility is 
maintained and bumper crops are grown, a large part of which is 
marketed thru the animals of the farm. 

Having discussed in the preceding chapters the fundamental prin- 
ciples governing the rational feeding and care of the various classes 
of farm animals, let us now consider in detail the value of the many 
different feeding stuffs for live stock. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Using local prices for feeds, see if you can find instances wliere the market 
price of a feed does not represent its actual feeding value compared with otlier 
feeds which are available. 

2. Find the local prices for at least six concentrates and four roughages 
suitable for feeding dairy cows, and compute tlie cost per pound of digestible 
crude protein and total digestible nutrients, as on Page 108. Using tliis data, 
compute the cheapest ration which will be well balanced and satisfactory in 
other respects for a 1,000-lb. cow producing 25 lbs. of 4 per ct. milk daily. 

3. How would jou adapt the amount of jjrotein in the ration to local con- 
ditions? 

4. Wiien would you feed less concentrates than called for in the feeding 
standards? 

5. Under what conditions would you rough growing beef cattle thru the 
winter? 

6. Discuss other ways in which you would adajjt your type of farming to 
local conditions. 



Part II 
FEEDING STUFFS 



CHAPTER IX 

LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 

I. Corn and Its By-Products 

The prime importance of Indian corn, or maize, as a grain crop in 
the United States is shown by the fact that in acreage, in total yield, 
and in value, it greatly exceeds any other cereal. Corn is grown in 
every state of the Union, but flourishes best in the great region be- 
tween the Appalachians and the Rocky ^Mountain Plateau. A heat 
loving plant, it thrives best Avhere the nights are warm during the 
growing season. 

Corn as a feed. — Corn is the great energizing, heat-giving, fat-fur- 
nishing feed for the animals of the farm. No other cereal yields, on 
a given space and with a given ex- 
penditure of labor, so much food 
in both grain and forage. On mil- 
lions of farms successful animal 
husbandry rests upon this imperial 
crop. 

The corn grain is pre-eminently 
a carbohydrate bearer, every 100 
lbs. containing over 70 lbs. of 
nitrogen-free extract, which is 
nearly all starch. In addition, 
corn is higher than all the other 
common cereals in fat, or oil, con- 
taining 5 per ct. of this energy-rich 
nutrient. Due to this abundance 
of starch and oil, it excels as a 
fattening feed. Being so rich in 
carbohydrates, corn is naturally 

low in crnde i^rotein. jMoreover, the crude protein is somewhat iin~ 
baliiiu'cd, more than half of it consisting of a single kind which larks 

117 ' 




Fig. 32. — The King of Cereals 

On millions of farms the success of 
animal husbandry depends largely on 



118 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

some of the amino acids necessary for animal growth. Corn is also un- 
usually low in mineral matter, especially lime (calcium), which is 
needed in large amounts by growing animals. Indeed, ther© is but 0.2 
lb. of lime in 1,000 lbs. of the grain. In feeding corn we must bear in 
mind these important facts concerning its composition, and correct its 
deficiencies by supplementing it with feeds high in protein and cal- 
cium. Fortunately, the legume hays, as alfalfa and clover, are rich in 
the lacking nutrients, and go far toward balancing a heavy allowance 
of corn. For fattening cattle and sheep corn and legume hay alone 
make quite a satisfactoiy, well-balanced ration. 

A possible explanation of the great fondness of farm animals for 
corn lies in its richness in oil. Again, on mastication the kernels 
break into nutty ])articles which are more palatable than meal from 
wheat, for example, which turns to a sticky dough in the mouth. 

The corn grain is the chief basis of the production of beef, pork, 
and mutton thruout the corn belt. For all classes of fattening ani- 
mals corn may form most of the concentrate allowance, only sufficient 
of such protein-rich feeds as linseed meal, cottonseed meal, or wheat 
bran, being added to balance the ration. Corn meal is excellent for 
dairy cows, when mixed with feeds M'hich are bulkier and richer in 
protein. Trials have show'n that when fed to work horses in properly 
balanced rations corn is a satisfactory substitute for oats. With grow- 
ing and breeding animals it is especially necessary that corn be sup- 
plemented by feeds Avhich contain an abundance of protein and mineral 
matter. The manner in which corn should be used for feeding the 
various classes of animals is discussed in detail in Part III. 

While corn should be ground for dairy cows, such preparation does 
not generally pay for horses or pigs. AVhen pigs follow fattening 
cattle to pick up the grain that escapes mastication and digestion, the 
steers are most commonly fed ear or snapped corn, or even shock com. 
Sheep with good teeth can always grind their own corn. 

Races and types of com.— Three races of corn— dent, flint, and 
sweet — are of interest to the stockman. In dent corn the starch is 
partly hornlike and partly floury, rendering the kernel ea.sy of nms- 
tication. In flint corn the starch is mostly hornlike and flinty, mak- 
ing the kernel harder for the animal to crush. There " is but 
little difference in the composition of dent and flint corn, and they 
have the same feeding value. Recent investigations by Steenbock at 
the Wisconsin Station show that yellow corn is much richer than wdiite 
corn in fat soluble vitamino. (See Page r)S.) This makes yellow corn 
more valuable than white foi- animals not otherwise receiving plenty of 
this vitamine, as pigs not on pasture which are fed corn with such 
supplements as tankage, linseed meal, or skim milk. 



LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 119 

In sweet corn the starch is hornlike and tough. Before hardening, 
the milky kernels of this race carry much glucose, which is changed to 
starch as they mature into the shrunken grain. Sweet corn has some- 
what more crude protein and fat and less carbohydrates than the 
other races. 

The length of the growing season exerts a deep influence upon the 
type of corn. In the South the tropical corn stems, 4 or 5 months 
from planting, carry great ears burdened with grain so high that a 
man can only touch them by reaching far above his head. At the 
other extreme, the JMandan Indian in the country of the Red River 
of the North developed an early maturing race which reached only to 
the shoulders of the squaw, with tiny ears borne scarcely a foot from 
the ground on pigmy stalks. 

Storage and shrinkage of ear corn. — AVhile old ear corn rarely 
contains over 12 per ct. of water, freshly husked corn may contain 36 
per et. Ear corn carrying 20 per ct. or more of water will rarely 
keep if any considerable quantity is stored together. On twisting 
such ears they will be found to be loose grained and "sappy." Corn 
is stored mostly on the husked ear in the North, but in the South the 
husks are left on the ears because of the weevil, a beetle that lives in 
the kernels unless they are protected. Shelled corn does not keep 
well in bulk, especially in the summer, and so corn is held in ear 
form as long as possible. 

Seventy lbs. of dry dent ear corn of good varieties yields 1 bushel, 
or 56 lbs., of shelled corn, but in the early fall buyers frequently de- 
mand 75 or 80 lbs., according to the estimated water content. Flint 
varieties have a larger i^roportion of cob to grain than does dent corn. 

Soft corn. — Corn frosted before the grains mature contains too 
much water for storage or shipment, and is best utilized by immediate 
feeding. Soft corn has been fed successfully to swine, and for steers 
a pound of dry matter in soft corn is equal in feeding value to a 
pound of dry matter in hard corn. 

A late-maturing variety of corn should not be planted in a locality 
having a short growing season, with the hope of getting a larger yield. 
The corn will usually not mature, there is great danger of its heating 
and molding, and the shrinkage is large. As has been shown in 
Chapter I, the most rapid storage of food in the corn kernels takes 
place when they are approaching maturity. 

Corn meal; corn chop; corn feed-meal. — The term corn meal, as 
applied to feeding stuffs, is most correctly used for the entire ground 
corn grain, from which the bran, or hulls, have not been removed by 
bolting. In preparing corn for human food the grain is ground 
coarsely and the tine sif tings and also the bran are removed. The 



120 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

milled product, which is likewise called corn meal, has a more attrac- 
tive appearance than the entire ground grain, but contains somewhat 
less protein and fat. Much of the commercial corn meal, particularly 
in the IMississippi valley, is made from the part of the kernel left 
after the manufacture of cracked corn or table meal. It is most cor- 
rectly called corn feed-meal, and is equal in feeding value to com 
meal from the entire grain. Corn chop is a name sometimes applied 
to ground corn, and also to mixtures of ground corn and corn by- 
products. On grinding corn the oil it carries soon becomes rancid 
and gives the meal a stale taste. Hence this grain should never be 
ground far in advance of use. 

Corn cobs; corn-and-cob meal. — When ear corn is ground the 
product is called corn-and-cob meal. Because of the rubber-like con- 
sistency of the cobs, much power is required to reduce ear corn to 
meal. If the cob particles in corn-and-cob meal are coarse, the animal 
will not usually eat them, but when finely ground corn-and-cob meal 
proves satisfactory with most farm animals. Corn cobs contain over 
30 per ct. fiber and furnish little more digestible nutrients than oat 
straw. Any benefit from including the cobs in grinding is therefore 
jiot due chiefly to the nutrients the cobs furnish, but to the fact that 
they make the meal more bulky. This causes it to lie loosely in the 
stomach, thus aiding the action of the digestive fluids. If the cost of 
grinding is small, corn-and-cob meal may be preferable to corn meal 
when fed with heavy concentrates, especially for dairy cows and 
horses. Including the cobs is not profitable for sheep or pigs. 

Composition of the corn kernel. — Before discussing the value of 
the various corn by-products resulting from the manufacture of 
hunum food, it will be helpful to consider the composition of the 
different parts of the corn kernel. The flinty, or hornlike, starch 
at 1lie sides and l)ack of the kcni(>l forms nearly half the total weight. 
About 88 per ct. of this portion is si arch, with but 10 per ct. protein, 
less than 1 per ct. fiber, and but a trace of fat and ash. The floury 
starch at the tip of the kernel and partially surrounding the germ, 
which forms about one-fourth of the kernel, is even higher in starch 
and carries only 7.8 per ct. protein. The liulls and tip caps, which 
make up 7 per ct. of the kernel, are also composed largely of carbo- 
hydrates, tho containing less starch and about 15 per ct. fiber. Thr 
hornlike gluten (8 per ct. of the kernel), just under the hull, is rich in 
crude protein, and the germ (12 per ct. of the kernel) is high in crude 
protein, ash, and fat. 

Starch and glucose by-products. — In the manufacture of commer- 
cial si arch and glucose fi'oiii coi-n, Hie grain is cleaned and then 



LEADING CElfEALS AND THEIR BY-PKUDUCTS 121 

softened by soaking in warm water, slightly acidified with sulfurous 
acid. Next it is coarsely ground and the mass passed into tanks con- 
taining "starch liquor." Here the germs, which are lighter on 
account of the large amount of oil they carry, rise to the surface, and 
are removed. After washing, the residue is then finely ground, and 





d 



H 



J 



-h 

Fig. 33. — Diagram op a Kernel of Dent Corn 

., Hull; 
gel-] 



A, Hull; b, hornlike gluten; c. floury starch; d, huru}- starch; c, embryo, or 
erm; f, embryo stem; g, embryo root; h, tip cap. 



the coarser part, the bran, separated by silk sieves. The remainder, 
called "starch liquor," which contains the starch, gluten, and fine 
particles of fiber, is then passed slowly thru shallow, slightly inclined 
troughs where the starch settles like Avet lime, while the lighter ingre- 
dients — the gluten, fiber, etc. — are carried oft' in the current of water. 
In this process there are thus obtained, (1) the germ, from which 



122 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABKIDGKD 

corn oil and jierin oil meal are secured, (2) the l)riiii, coiisioling of 
the hulls, (3) the starch, and (4) the gluten. The l)raii, together Avith 
some light weight and broken germs, was formerly dried and sold as 
corn hran. Now, however, the bran and gluten are usually united 
while still wet, and then dried and ground, the product being sold as 
corn gluten feed, or corn starch hy-product with corn hran, as it is 
sometimes called. The term corn gluten feed is used to distinguish 
this feed from ''Continental Gluten Feed," a proprietary name for 
certain dried distillers' grains. 

Corn gluten feed.— Gluten feed contains about 25 per ct. crude pro- 
tein, 7 per ct. fiber, 53 per ct. nitrogen-free extract, and 4 per ct. fat. 
It is thus a protein-rich feed. The ash content ranges from less than 
1 per ct. to 5 or 6 per ct., depending on whether the steep water in 
which the corn is softened is evaporated and the residue added to the 
gluten feed or not. This residue consists of such substances as the 
soluble protein and phosphates which are dissolved out of the kernels 
during the soaking process. Gluten feed is extensively used for dairy 
cows. As it contains about 9 per ct. more digestible crude protein and 
also furnishes more total digestible nutrients than wheat" bran, it is 
worth considerably more than this feed. It may also be satisfactorily 
fed to beef cattle, sheep, and swine to supplement carbonaceous con- 
centrates. 

Gluten meal. — This by-product, now sometimes called com hy- 
product without corn hran, is one of the richest of concentrates in 
crude protein and fat, while fair in carbohydrates and low in mineral 
matter. It is a heavy feed, and, as mentioned before, is usually mixed 
with corn bran to form gluten feed. 

Germ oil meal. — The corn germs removed iu the manufacture of 
starch are dried, crushed, and much of the oil pressed out, leaving the 
residue in cakes. This is exported as corn oil cale, or ground and 
sold in this country as germ oil meal or corn germ meal. This feed 
contains somewhat less protein than the usual gluten feed, but carries 
a much larger amount of fat. 

Hominy feed, meal, or chop. — This by-product, variousl}^ called 
homing feed, hominy meal, or hominy chop, is a mixture of the bran, 
the germ, and a part of the starchy portion of the corn kernel obtained 
in the manufacture of hominy, of hominy grits, and of table corn 
meal made by the degerminating process, where the germs are re- 
moved from the table meal. It is a carbonaceous feed, similar to corn 
in composition, but somewhat bulkier. In feeding value it is about 
equal to corn meal and it has the advantage of being kiln dried, thus 
keeping better in storage. It is preferred to corn meal for dairy 
cattle and is also excellent for beef cattle, sheep, and swine. 



LEADING CEKEALS AXD THEIR BY-PKODUCTS 123 



II. Wheat and Its By-Products in jMilling 

Due to its wide-spread use for human food, wheat is commonly too 
high in price to be fed in any considerable amount to stock. How- 
ever, wheat wiiich is frosted, shrunken, or otherwise damaged can be 
profitably utilized. Tho the market price of such grain is low, it is 
often equal to wheat of good (quality for feeding. Salvage grain, 
slightly charred or damaged by smoke, may also have its value for 
stock feeding but little injured. 

Wheat as a feed. — Compared with corn, wheat carries slightly more 
carbohydrates in the form of starch, is higher in crude protein and 
mineral matter, and contains much less fat. Tho wheat is richer than 
corn in protein, the protein is unbalanced in composition, as in corn. 




Fig. 34. — Heads op Different Types op Wheat 

From left to right: 1, bearded winter wheat (Turkey Red) ; 2, Ijeardlcss sprinpr 
wheat (Blue Stem); 3, bearded spring wheat (Velvet Chaff); 4, Durum, or 
macaroni wheat; 5, club wheat. 

Like corn, wheat should be supplemented by feeds rich in protein and 
lime. Fed in properly balanced rations, it is about equal to corn for 
dairy cows, beef cattle, sheep, and pigs. It should not be fed in large 
amounts to horses, as it may cause digestive disturbances. Since the 
kernels are small and hard, wheat should be ground, or better, crushed 



124 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABHIDGKD 

or rolled, except for sheep. Finely ground meal or wheat flour forms 
a pasty mass in the mouth, which can be prevented by mixing with it 
such materials as bran or coarse corn meal. 

There is no appreciable difference in feeding value between spring 
and winter wheat. Durum or macaroni wheat, extensively grown in 
the northern plains states, has practically the same composition and 
feeding value as ordinary wheat. 

Flour manufacture. — The wheat kernel is covered with three straw- 
like coats or skins. Beneath these comes the aleurone laj^er, high in 
crude protein. The germ, or embryo plant, in each kernel is rich in 
oil, crude protein, and mineral matter. The remainder of the kernel 
consists of thin-walled cells packed with starch grains. Among the 
starch grains are protein particles called "gluten," that give wheat- 
tlour dough the tenacity needed in bread making. In producing flour 
the miller aims to secure all the vstarch and ghiten possible from the 
wheat grains, while avoiding the bran, which makes the flour brownish, 
and the germs, which soon turn rancid and injure the keeping quality. 

In modern milling, flour is produced by passing the thoroly cleaned 
wheat thru a series of steel rollers, each succeeding pair being set a 
little nearer together, so that the kernels are gradually crushed into 
smaller and smaller particles. The flour is removed by sifting or 
passing the material over bolting cloth, and finally only the by- 
products remain. These form 25 to 33 per ct. of the w'eight of the 
entire grain. 

The names of the various mill products differ somewhat in various 
sections of the country, but those most commonly used are given in 
the articles which follow. 

Wheat bran. — Bran, which consists of the outer coatings of the 
wheat kernel together with the aleurone layer, is one of the most 
popular of the cereal by-products for stock feeding. It is fairly rich 
in digestible protein, and is fair in digestible carbohydrates and fat. 
It is a most palatable feed, and, being bulky, is excellent to mix with 
such heavy concentrates as corn, wheat, or barley meal. It also has a 
beneficial laxative effect, due to a certain phosphorous compound. 
Bran from mills lacking machinery for perfect separation of tlie starch 
from the bran coats is somewhat lower in protein and correspondingly 
higher in starch than bran from large mills. The difference in feed- 
ing value is but slight. 

Bran is rich in phosphorus, needed in large amounts by growing 
animals and those producing milk, but it is deficient in calcium (lime). 
Due to this lack, horses heavily fed on bran sometimes suffer from 
"bran disease," which seriously affects their bones. When large 
amounts of bran are used, it should therefore be fed with feeds rich 



LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 



125 



in lime, such as legume hay, or lime may be supplied as ground lime- 
stone or wood ashes. 

Owing to its bulky nature and also because it is often high in 
price compared with other con- 
centrates, bran is not com- 
monlj^ fed to farm animals as 
the only concentrate, but is 
mixed with other feeds to add 
volume or to balance rations 
low in protein. Its richness in 
protein and phosphorus, and 
its beneficial laxative action 
make it valnable as part of the 
concentrate allowance for dairy 
cows, breeding animals of all 
classes, and young, growing 
animals. With all horses it is 
useful, especially' on idle days, 
because of its bulk and laxa- 
tive effect. It is fre(iuently 
supplied at least once a week 
in the form of a bran masli, 
wet or steamed. It is too bulky 
and too laxative to form a 
large part of the ration for 
hard-worked horses. Bran is 
often mixed with corn and 
other heavy concentrates in 
starting fattening cattle or 
slieep on feed. It is valuable 
for brood sows not getting pas- 
ture or legume liay, tlio too 
bulky for young pigs or fatten- 
ing hogs. 

Due to its widespread popu- 
larity, bran is often high in 
price compared with other 
nitrogenous concentrates w^hich can be used with equally good results 
and many of which carry more protein. 

Wheat middlings. — ]\Iiddlings vary in quality from red dog flour, 
which contains eonsideralile flour, to standard middlings, or shorts, 
which may contain but little. To some extent standard or hrotvn 
middlings a)id shorts are interchangeable terms. Standard wheat 




-DiAGRA]M OF "Wheat 
Kernel 

A, three hran coats; b, aleuroiie layer: 
c, cells Jilled with starch grains; d, em- 
bryo, or germ; e, embryo leaves; f, em- 
br^'o root. (Partially after Neumann.) 



126 FKI'IDS AND FEEDING, ABKIDGED 

iniddliii^i's coinjirisc tlie finer l)i'au ]iartu"le.s with e()iisideral)U' flour 
adheriug. Shorts too often consist of ground-over bran and the 
sweepings and dirt of the mills, along with ground or unground weed 
seeds. Flour or white middlings are of vsomewhat liigher grade than 
standard middlings, for they contain eonsideral)lc low-grade flour and 
carry sligluly more crude protein and l(>ss fi])er. Middlings are use- 
ful with swine of all ages, hut shoiihl not lie fed as the (inl\- supple 
ment lo i)i^s not on pasture. Along wilh dairy l)\-pro(lucls oi- lank- 
auc they give good residts. In eombiiuition wilh oIIkt feeds ihey are 
satisfactory for dairy cows, and they may also be fed to horses in 
snuill amounts when mixed with other feeds to avoid colic. 

Red dog flour. — Red dog flour, or dark feeding flour, generally con- 
tains the wheat germs and is therefore rich in crude protein and fat. 
Such flour differs little in composition and feeding value from the best 
flour middlings. 

Wheat mixed feed. — Wheat mixed feed, or shipstuff, is, strictly 
speaking, the entire mill run of the residues of the wheat kernel left 
after separating the commercial flour. The term is also used for 
various mixtures of bran and red dog flour or middlings. The value 
of wheat mixed feed will depend on the proportions of bran, middlings, 
and flour present, a good grade being superior to wheat bran. 

Screenings. — In cleaning and grading wheat at the elevators and 
mills, there remain great cpiantities of screenings, consisting of broken 
and shrunken wheat kernels having high feeding value, mixed with 
weed seeds and more or less trash. The weed seeds differ widely in 
feeding value and different lots of screenings vary in the proportions 
of wheat and trash contained. The best heavy screenings are but little 
inferior to wheat. Farmers who seek to keep their land free from 
noxious weeds should see that before feeding the screenings are finely 
ground to kill all weed seeds. Screenings are now mostly used along 
with molasses and various other by-products in the manufacture of 
proprietary feeding stuff's. The feed control laws of several states 
require that when screenings are present in feeds the fact be indicated 
on the label and in some cases the percentage must be stated. 

III. Oats and Their By-products 

Next to corn, oats are the most extensively grown cereal in the 
United States. The oat grain is richer than corn in crude protein, 
and contains nearly as much fat. Due to the w'oody hull, it contains 
over 10 per ct. fiber, with correspondingly less nitrogen-free extract 
than corn or wheat, and accordingly is lower in digestible nutrients 
and net energy. The hulls of oats form from 20 to 45 per ct. of their 



LEADING CEKEALS AND TIlEIi; BY-PKODUCTS 



127 



total weight, the average being about 30 per et. As light-weight oats 
contain more hull and less kernel than plump, heavy oats, their feeding 
value per pound will be correspondingly less. To increase the weight 
per bushel and thus make the oats appear to be of a higher grade, the 
hulls are sometimes ''clipped" at the pointed end by machines. 

Oats as a feed. — Owing to their bulky character, oats are the safest 
of all feeds for the horse, in this respect being in contrast to corn. 
Because of the mettle so characteristic of the oat-fed horse, it was long 
held that there is a stimulating substance in the oat grain. All claims 



^i i. 








^ f 

1 \ _____ 1 





Fig. o6. — Heads Of Oats, Emmer, and Spelt 

From left to riglit: 1, Variety of oats with open or spreading panicle; 2, side 
oats; 3, emmer; 4, spelt. 

of the discovery of this compound have, however, melted away on 
careful examination^ and rations containing no oats have given as 
good results'as where oats were fed. For dairy cows there is no better 
grain than oats, but their use is restricted hy their high price. Oats 
are often mixed with heavy concentrates in starting fattening cattle 
and sheep on feed. As fattening progresses more concentrated feeds 
should be substituted for all or most of the oats. Ground oats with 
the hulls sifted out provide a most nourishing and wholesome feed 
for young calves and pigs. For breeding swine, whole oats in limited 
quantity are alwaj's in place. 



12S FEEDS AN'D EEEDlXii, A I'.K' I iXil']]) 

In recent years tlie bleachinp,' of low-grade oats and l)arley with 
snlfurous acid fumes to whiten the grain has become common. Such 
grain should he avoided, as it may injure the health of stock. 

Oat by-products. — In the manufacture of oatmeal and other break- 
fast foods, after the light-weight grains are screened out, the oat hulls 
are removed from the remainder, a vast quantity resulting. So com- 
pletely are lli(> k(>riu>ls separated lliat llie ehalf-like hulls, whieh con- 
lain about :^0 ]ier ct. fil)er, are worth but little, if any, more than oat 
straw as a feed. If fragments of the kernels adhere, their value is of 
course thereby improved. The hulls are used in the manufacture of 
various proi)rietary feeds. The addition of a limited amount of hulls 
to a mixture of heavy concentrates may l)e beneficial. However, in 
buying mixed feeds one should not pay as nuicli for a low-grade feed, 
consisting largely of oat hulls, as for high-grade concentrates. 

After the oats are hulled, the fuzzy material covering the kernels 
is removed, and the kernels are rolled or otherwise prepared for 
hunuin food. The fuzzy material was formerly known as oat dust, 
but now the term oat slwrfs is applied to this material plus portions 
of the fine floury part of the kernels removed in the milling process. 
Oat u}i(l(llin(/s are the floury portions of the k(U'nels obtaiiu^d in the 
milling of rolled oats. Commonly these by-products are used in the 
manufactui'e of mixed feeds, or lli(\v are combined with moi-e or less 
of the hulls and sold as oat fcal. The composition and value of oat 
feeds vary widely, depending on the amount of hulls lU'cst'nt. This 
is shown by the fiber content. These feeds .should therefore be ]mr- 
chased only on guarantee of composifidii and from reputable dealers. 
(Tippt'd oat hji-prodact or oat clippiiujs, is the by-product obtained in 
numufaetui'ing elipix'd oats. This ])f(i(liiet, consisting of clialVy nia- 
fei-ial broken fi'om the ends of the hulls, emjjty hulls, light inuiiatui'e 
oats, aiul dust, is used in various pi'opi-i(>tary feeds. 

Ground corn and oats. — This feed, variously called (/round corn 
and oais, fjroiind feed, ami provender, is extensively employed in the 
eastern and southern states for feeding horses' and dairy cows, in 
composition it ranges from a straight mixture of good-grade corn and 
oats to one containing a large proportion of low-grade materials, such 
as oat hulls and ground corn cobs. The best guide to the purity of this 
feed is the fiber content ; when it contains over 7 per ct. fiber, it either 
has been adulterated or was made from poor-quality oats. 

IV. Barley and Its l>v-l*RonrcTis in Brewing 

Barley is the most widely cultivated of the cereals, growing in 
Alaska and tloui'ishing beside oraiuie groves in Califoi'nia. Once the 



LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 12}) 

chief bread plant of many ancient nations, it is now used almost wliolly 
for brewing, pearling, and stock feeding. The hull of the grain of 
ordinary brewing barley or of Scotch barley constitutes about 15 per ct. 
of its total weight. California feed barley, grown extensively in some 
sections of the "West, has more hull and weighs 45 lbs. or less per 
bushel ; while the usual weight of common barley is 48 lbs. Bald or 
hulless barley, also grown in the western states, has hard kernels, eon- 
tains less fiber owing to the absence of the hull, and is as heavy as 
wheat. Barley has less digestible crude protein than oats, and more 
than corn. The carbohydrates exceed those of oats and fall below 
those in corn, while the oil content is lower than in either. 

Barley as a feed. — On the Pacific slope, v.here corn or oats do not 
flourish in eciual degree, barley is extensively used as a feed for ani- 




FiG. 37. — Heads op Different Varieties op Barley and of Rye 

From left to right: 1, Two-rowed barley, 2, common six-rowed barley, or so- 
called four-rowed barley; 3, true six-rowed barley; 4, California feed barley; 5, 
beardless barley; 6, rye. 

mals. For horses crushed barley is worth slightly more than crushed 
oats. For dairy cows ground barley has proved equal to ground corn. 
Fed with legume hay to fattening steers and lambs, barley has given 
very satisfactory^ results. In (ireat Britain and northern Europe it 
lakes the place of corn for pig feeding, leading all grains in producing 
Dork of fine (piality. Scmiewlial more barley than coi-u has been 



130 FEEDS AXD FEEDIXO, ABIJIDGED 

required for 100 lbs. gain with fattening,' i)ig's. Owing to its more 
chaffy nature California feed barley is lower in value than common 
barley. Tlio higher than corn in crude protein, barley is still decid- 
edly carbonaceous in character, and should be fed with legume hay 
or with a nitrogenous concentrate for the best results. 

The malting process. — In making malt the barley grains are steeped 
in warm water until soft and kept warm until the}^ begin to sprout. 
The amount of diastase, the enzyme which converts starch into malt 
sugar, now increases greatly, and when sufficient diastase has been 
formed in the grain, it is quiekl.y dried. The tiny, dry, shriveled 
sprouts are then separated from the grains, and put on the market as 
malt sprouts. The dried grains remaining form malt. In the manu- 
facture of beer, the malt, after being rolled, is moistened and usually 
mixed with cracked corn which has been previously cooked. The dias- 
tase in the malt now converts the starch in the corn and the malt into 
malt sugar. This, together with some of the nitrogenous and mineral 
matter, is then extracted from the mass and fermented by yeast, which 
forms the alcohol in the beer. The freshly extracted residue consti- 
tutes rvet hreivers' grains, which on drying in a vacuum are called 
dried 'brewers' grains or hreivers' dried grains. 

Dried brewers' grains. — Dried brewers' grains, which keep indefi- 
nitely, contain over 70 per ct. more digestible crude protein and twice 
as much fat as wheat bran, but are lower in carbohydrates, which are 
largely pentosans. They are nearly as bulky as wheat bran. Dried 
brewers' grains are widely fed to dairy cows and serve well as part of 
the concentrate allowance for horses, especiallj^ for those at hard work, 
and needing an ample supply of protein. On account of their bulk, 
they are not well suited to pigs. 

Wet brewers' grains.- — Owing to their volume, waterj^ nature, and 
perishable character, wet brewers' grains are usually fed near the 
brewery. Containing about 75 per ct. water, they have slightly over 
one-fourth the feeding value of an equal w'eight of dried grains. 
Supplied in reasonable quantity, 20 to 30 lbs. per head daily, and fed 
while fresh in clean, water-tight boxes and along with nutritious hay 
and other roughage, there is no better food for dairy cows than wet 
brewers' grains. However, the wet grains should never be fed to 
dairy cows unless extreme care is taken to prevent the mangers and 
surroundings from becoming foul. In Europe the wet grains are con- 
sidered excellent for fattening cattle and swine when used with dry 
feed and furnishing not over half the nutrients in the ration. On 
account of their "wash}-" nature, they are not commonly used for 
horses and slieop. 

Malt sprouts. — The tiny, shriveled sprouts separated from llic di-ied 



LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 13i 

malt grains form a bulky feed which is rather low in carbohydrates 
and fat, but carries about 20 per ct. digestible crude protein, one-third 
of which is amids. At ruling prices they are an economical source of 
protein, but, not being relished by stock, should be given in limited 
(juantity mixed with other concentrates. Malt sprouts are especially 
valuable for dairy cows, tho they will not usually eat over 2 or 3 lbs. 
daily. In Europe horses have been fed as high as 5 to 6 lbs. per head 
daily with good results, and sheep 0.5 lb. daily per 100 lbs. live weight 
Since malt sprouts swell greatly when they absorb water, they should 
be soaked for several hours before feeding. . 

Barley feed. — This by-product from the manufacture of pearl barley 
or flour has about the same feeding value as Avheat bran, being some- 
what lower in protein and higher in nitrogen-free extract. 

V. Eye and Its By-Products 

Rye, the principal cereal of north Europe, is not extensively grown 
in America. Tho it repays good treatment, this "grain of poverty" 
thrives in cool regions on land that will not give profitable returns 
with other cereals. It furnishes about one-third of the people of 
Europe with bread, and Avhen low in price or of¥-grade is commonly 
fed to stock. 

Rye and its by-products. — Tho farm animals show no fondness for 
rye, they take it willingly when mixed with other feeds. Fed alone 
or in large amounts it is more apt to cause digestive disturbances than 
the other cereals. In northern Europe it is a common feed for horses 
and swine. Fed in large allowance to cows rye produces a hard, dry 
butter. 

The by-products in the manufacture of rye flour are rije bran and 
rye middlings, which are usually combined and sold as rye feed. All 
have about the same feeding value as the corresponding wheat feeds, 
the rye feeds containing less fiber and being somewhat lower in protein 
and higher in nitrogen-free extract. 

VI. Emmer 

Emmer, often incorrectly called "spelt" or "speltz, " was intro- 
duced into America from Germany and Russia. It is a member of the 
wheat family, altho in appearance the grain resembles barle}'. Being 
drought resisting, emmer is valuable in the semi-arid regions of Amer- 
ica. In 1909, 12.700,000 bushels were grown, mostly in the northern 
plains states. 

Emmer as a feed. — In composition emmer resembles oats. It may 
be fed with success to all classes of farm animals, its value being some- 



132 FEEDS AND FEEDINCr, ABRIDGED 

what lower than corn or barley. Like oats, it is rather bulky to use as 
the sole concentrate for fattening animals, and gives better results 
when mixed with corn or barley. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are the strong and the weak points of corn as a feed? 

2. Discuss the diflferencos in composition and finding value of the three ty])e3 
of corn. 

."}. How should soft corn be utilized and wliat is its value? 

4. Discuss tlie composition of tlie different ])arts of the corn grain and draw 
a diagram siiowing their location in the kernel. 

T). Describe tlie manufacture of starch from corn and name the by-products 
resulting. 

G. What is the feeding value of gluten feed and hominy meal? 

7. Compare wheat and corn for stock feeding. 

8. Draw a diagram of the wheat kernel and discuss the manufacture of 
flour. 

9. Discuss the value and uses of wheat bran, wheat middlings, red dog flour, 
wheat mixed feed, and wheat screenings. 

10. What are the composition and value for feeding of oats, oat hulls, and 
oat middlings? 

11. Describe the malting process and discuss the feeding value of barley, 
dried brewer's grains, and malt sprouts. 

12. What is the value for stock of rye, rye middlings, and emmer? 



CHAPTER X 

MINOR CEREALS, OIL-BEARING AND LEGUMINOUS SEEDS 
AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 

I. Rice and its By-Products 

The production of rice is steadily increasing in Louisiana, Texas, 
and Arkansas, where over 95 per ct. of the entire crop of the United 
States is produced. Like wheat, this cereal is used almost entirely for 
human food, 011I3' the by-products from the manufacture of polished or 
table rice being fed to farm animals. 

Rice and its by-products. — In preparing roucjh rice for human food, 
tirst the hulls and next the bran, or outer skin of the kernel, are 
removed. The kernels are then "polished" to remove the creamy out- 
side layer, rich in protein and fat, and to produce an attractive lustre. 
The resulting floury particles form rice polish. 

Rough rice and hulled rice are commonly fed to stock only when of 
low grade. The kernels being hard, these feeds should be ground. 
Rough rice may replace corn in stock feeding, being worth about 7 
per ct. more than that grain. Hulled rice is the richest of all cereals 
in carbohydrates, but relatively low in crude protein and fat. It is 
worth about 16 per ct. more than corn. 

Rice hulls, tasteless and woody, furnish only about one-third as 
much digestible nutrients as wheat straw. It is also claimed that their 
sharp, flinty edges and needle-like points are irritating and dangerous 
to the walls^ of the stomach and intestines. They should never be fed 
to stock, but yet are sometimes used to adulterate mixed feeds, or 
are ground and sold as "husk meal" or "Star bran." 

Rice Iran, when pure, consists of the outer layer of the rice kernel 
proper, the germs, and a small amount of hulls not separated in the 
milling process. When adulterated with hulls, it is called "commer- 
cial bran." Unadulterated rice bran is a highly nutritious feed, con- 
taining about as much protein as wheat, 11 per ct. fat, and not over 
13 per ct. fiber. It may form half the concentrates for horses and 
mules, is satisfactory for fattening steers, and may be fed to dairy cows 
and pigs as part of the concentrates. Too large an amount injures the 
milk of dairy cows and produces soft pork in pigs. The fat in rice 
bran soon becomes rancid, and the feed may then be distasteful to 

stock. 

133 



134 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABHIDGED 



7i(V<3 polish, e(|ual to corn in feeding value, carries slightly more 
protein and considerably more fat, but correspondingly less nitrogen- 
free extract. 



'/k I. [. 



mtL- 



WSi 









7^ 








'th-' 






Fig, 38. — A Field op Rice in Arkansas 

Rice is usually grown on low, level ground under irrigation, the certain varieties 
can be grown on upland without irrigation. Note that this field is flooded. 
(From The Southwest Trail, Rock Island Lines.) 

II. Sorghums and ]Millets 

Numberless millions of people in India, China and Africa rely on 
the sorghums and millets for their bread. In India more land is 
devoted to growing these crops than to wheat, rice, and Indian corn 
combined. In Africa the sorghums are the one ever-present crop, from 
tropical jungle to desert oasis and mountain valley. 

The sorghums. — The sorghums may be divided into two classes. — 
the saccharine sorghums, having stems filled with sweet juices, and the 
non-saccharine or grain sorghums, with more pithy stems and sour or 
only slightly sweet juice. The Indian corn plant never gives satisfac- 
tory returns if its growth is once checked. The sorghums may cease 
growing and their leaves shrivel during periods of excessive heat and 
drought ; yet when the soil lieromes moist again, they quickly resume 



MINOR CEREALS 



135 



growth. This group of plants is thus of vast importance as grain 
crops for the southern portion of the semi-arid plains region. Between 
1899 and 1919 the acreage in the United States of grain sorghums 
increased from 266,000 to 4,893,000 acres. 

Most of the grain sorghum produced in the United States is grown 
in the Great Plains region, east of the Rocky Mountains, extending 
from southwestern Nebraska to northwestern Texas, a limited amount 
also being grown in Arizona, Utah, and California. Thruout much of 




Fig. 39. — Heads op Different Types of Grain Sorghums 

From left to right: 1 and 2, yt'llow milo: 3, wliite Kaolianji: 4, brown Kaolianj:; 
.'>, feterita; (5, red kafir; 7, pink kafir; 8, black-hulled kafir. (From Breeder's 
Gazette. ) 

the grain sorghum belt these crops are more sure, and, even on good 
soil, give larger yields than corn. The grain sorghums commonly 
yield 25 bushels per acre, with maximums of 75 bushels for kafir, 46 for 
milo. and 80 for feterita.^ 

Grain sorghums as feeds.— The non-saccharine, or grain, sorghums 
include la fir, viilo, feterUa, kaoliang, and the less important dnrra and 
shallu. The seeds of tlie various sorghums are similar in composition, 

1 Piper, Forage Plants, p. 273. 



136 FEEDS AKD FEEDING, ABIIIDGED 

carrying about as iiiueh protein and nitrogcn-i"rec extract as eurn, but 
1.5 per ct. less fat. Properly supplemented with protein-rich feeds, 
they are excellent for all classes of animals. Tho less palatable than 
corn, their nutritive value ranges from fully equal to this grain to 
15 per ct. less. For horses, fattening cattle, dairy cows, and pigs the 
grain is usually ground, being then called "chop." Grinding for 
sheep is unnecessary. Often the unthreshed heads are fed, or the 
forage carrying the heads is supplied, especially to idle horses, colts, 
and 3'Oung stock. The product obtained by grinding the entire heads, 
called "head chop," resembles corn-and-cob meal in composition. 

Kafir. — The kafirs lead the sorghums in both grain and forage pro- 
duction in eastern Kansas and Oklahoma. They are stout-stemmed, 
broad-leaved plants, having slightly sweet juice and long, erect, cylin- 
drical heads carrying small egg-shaped seeds. The kafirs do not 
sucker, nor do they lodge or shatter the grain. In good seasons and 
on fertile soil 3-ields of 50 bushels or over are secured. As katir grain 
is astringent and constipating, it is best fed with alfalfa or clover hay, 
or other laxative feeds. 

Milo. — Next to kafir, milo is the most important of tlie grain 
sorghums. It is less leafy than kafir, and hence is not as valuable for 
forage. The heads are short and thick, goose-necked in most varieties, 
and with large flat seeds. As it is earlier, milo outyields kafir in the 
extreme west of the sorghum belt. Unlike kafir, milo has a slight laxa- 
tive effect. 

Feterita. — This type has erect heads and slender stems Avith more 
leaves than milo but less than kafir. It yields as much grain as kafir, 
tho less forage, and is of importance for the Avestern part of the grain 
sorghum belt. Unfortunately, it stools and lodges badly. 

Kaoliang. — These early-maturing sorghums from northern China 
are especially suited to the northern plains district, where the other 
types will not mature. The kaoliangs yield as much grain as the milos 
and will stand drought better, but the forage is scanty and of poor 
quality, the stalks being pithy and the leaves few. 

Sweet sorghums. — The sweet sorgluims, or sorghos, are forage rather 
than grain i)roducers, and are therefore discussed more fully in Chap- 
ter XII. For grain production they are surpassed by corn in the 
humid regions and by the grain sorghums in the plains districts. The 
seed is not as palatable nor of as high feeding value as kafir or milo. 

Millets. — The millets chiefly grown in this country are: (1), the 
foxtail millets, all resembling common foxtail or pigeon grass in 
appearance ; and (2), the broom corn, proso, or hog millets, which have 
spreading or panicled heads, wide hairy leaves, and large seeds. The 
forage types are considerp'J i» Clr^'^^pJ* XIII. In humid regions mil- 



OIL-BEAKING SEEDS AND liY-PKODUCTS lo7 

lets are chiefly sown in early summer as catch crops, owing to the short 
l)eriod recjuired for growth. In the northern plains district, where 
the growing season is too short for the sorghums, they are of increasing 
importance for grain production. The yields reported range from 
]6 to over 30 bushels per acre. Ground millet seed has been success- 
full}^ used for fattening cattle, lambs, and pigs, tho usually of some- 
what lower value than corn. 

III. Buckwheat and its By-Products 

Altho rarely used iov feeding stock, buckwheat has a fair value for 
such purpose, its luitrients running somewhat lower than those in the 
leading cereals. 

Buckwheat by-products. — The black, woody hulls of the buckwheat 
grain have little feetliiig value. On the otiicr hand, ht(cl,ivheat viid- 
dlings, that part of the kernel innnediately under the hull, which is 
separated from the flour on milling, contains 28 per ct. crude protein 
and 7 per ct. fat, with little fiber, and is etiual to dried brewers' grains 
in value. To dispose of the hulls, millers usually mix them with the 
middlings, selling the combination as l)i(cJ,irhe<it bran or feed. The 
value of such feed depends entirely on how much hulls are present. 
This can be told from the amount of fiber it contains. Buckwheat 
b.y-products are nearly always used for dairy cows, but should not be 
fed as the only concentrate or the quality of the milk may be injured. 

IV. Oil-Bearing Seeds and their By-Products 

The annual crop of cotton in the United States now amounts to over 
11,000,000 bales of 500 l])s. each, with about 5,000,000 tons of cotton 
seed as a by-product, since for each pound of hber, or lint, there are 
nearly 2 lbs. of seed. Before 1860 the seed of the cotton plant wa? 
laruel}' wasted by the planters, who, ignorant of its worth, often 
allowed it to rot near the gin house, while meat and other animal 
products which might have been produced from it were purchased at 
high cost from northern farmers. The utilization of the cotton seed 
and its products as food for man and beast furnishes a striking 
example of what science is accomplishing for agriculture. 

Cotton seed. — The cotton seed carries about 19 per ct. fat, or oil, 
and nearly 20 per ct. crude protein. Formerly much seed was fed in 
the South, esi)ecially to steers and dairy cattle. Now little is fed 
before the oil is extracted, both on account of the value of the oil and 
because cottonseed meal usually gives better results. Owing to the 
high oil content, cotton seed sometimes has an unduly laxative efifect. 
AVet, moldy cotton seed or that which has heated should never be fed. 



138 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



Cottonseed cake and meal. — At the oil mills the leathery hulls of 
the cotton seed, which are coveretl with short lint, are cut by machinery, 
and tlie oily kernels set free. These kernels are crushed, heated, placed 
between cloths, and subjected to hydraulic pressure to remove the oil. 
The residue is a hard, yellowish, board-like cake about one-half inch 
tliick, 1-4 in. wide, and 34 in. lon<i'. For the eastern and central states 
the cake is generally ground to a fine meal, for the western trade it is 
often broken into pieces of pea or nut size for cattle and coarsely 




Fig. 40. — Pickers in a Field of Cotton 

Over 2.500,000 tons of cottonseed meal are produced aiimmlly in this country 
as a by-product of tlie cotton crop. Used rijilitly. tliis ricli concentrate is one of 
llie most valuable feeds for stock. (From Louisville and Nashville Railroad.) 



ground' for sheep, while the export cake is commonly left whole. For 
feeding out of doors the broken cake is preferable to meal as it is not 
scattered by the wind. Unadulterated cottonseed meal of good quality 
should have a light yellow color and a sharp, initty odor. A dark or 
dull color may be due to age, to adulteration with hulls, to overheating 
during the cooking process, or to fermentation — all of which injure its 
feeding value. 

Cottonseed meal is one of the richest of all feeds in protein and 
carries over 8 per ct. of fat. Since the protein and fiber content vary 
considerably, depending chiefly on how thoroly the hulls are removed 



OIL-BKAHIXG SHEDS AND BY-PKODUCTS I'M 

from the meal, inamifacturers and feed control officials have agreed on 

the followhig ehi.s.sitication : 

Choice cottonseed meal must be perfectly sound and sweet in odor, yellow, 
not brown or reddisli, free from excess of lint, and must contain at least 41 
per ct. of crude protein. 

I'rime cottonseed meal must be of sweet odor, reasonably bright in color, and 
must contain at least 38.6 per ct. of crude protein. 

(Jood cottonseed meal must be of sweet odor, reasonably briglit in color, and 
must contain at least 3G per ct. of crude protein. 

Cottonseed feed is a mixture of cottonseed meal and cottonseed hulls, con- 
taining less than 36 per ct. crude protein. 

Owing to its wide variation in composition, cottonseed meal should 
be purchased on guarantee whenever possible. 

Cottonseed feed. — On northern markets cottonseed feed, consisting 
largely of hulls, is often sold for only a little less than choice cotton- 
seed meal. Yet average cottonseed feed contains but 24.5 per ct. crude 
protein, and is thus worth only 60 per ct. as much as choice cottonseed 
meal. Since it is impossible to tell tinely ground cottonseed feed from 
the best cottonseed meal by its appearance alone, the wise feeder will 
always buy cottonseed meal from reliable dealers. 

Cold-pressed cottonseed cake. — Cold-pressed cottonseed cake, or 
"caddo" cake, is produced by subjecting the entire uncrushed, 
unheatetl seed to great jiressure. In this cake there is a larger propor- 
tion of hull to meal than in the usual cottonseed meal, with correspond- 
ingly lower feetling value. This product is usually sold in nut or pea 
size but is sometimes ground to a meal. The crude-protein content of 
cold-pressed cake is a reliable guide to its feeding value. 

The poison of cotton seed. — P]xperience and scientific trials unite in 
showing that cotton seed or cottonseed cake or meal is not always a 
safe feed. After about 1 00 days- steers closely confined and heavily 
fed on meal often show a staggering gait, some become blind, and death 
frequently ends their distress. Cottonseed meal is most poisonous to 
swine. Pigs getting as much as one-third of their concentrates in the 
form of cottonseed meal thrive at first, but after a few weeks they 
become sick and may die. 

During the past 20 years numerous attempts have been made to find 
the cause of the poisonous effect, and many different reasons have been 
advanced by scientists. Further work has, however, failed to prove 
tliat the fatal effect is due to any of the causes assigned. Recently, 
Withers of the .\orth Carolina Station- has attributed the poisonous 
quality to a sub.stance called "gossypol," which is foi-nu'd in certain 
'cells of the seed. It is to be ho])ed that further woi'k may reveal 

-Jour. Agr. Ives., 5, 1!)1.), pp. 2()1-S8. 



J 10 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABHIDGED 

iiiolliods l)y wliieli tliis rich i"et'd can be used with sai'ely t'oi* all classes 
of animals. 

Feeding cottonseed meal and cake. — Cottonseed meal is one of the 
most valuable of feeds when properly fed, often being the cheapest 
available source of protein, and thru it, of nitrogen for maintaining 
soil fertility. It does not ha\e the beneficial laxative effect of linseed 
meal, but instead is somewhat constipating. !More care is necessary 
in feeding it, tho when given in proper combination with other feeds 
equally good results may be secured with dairy cows, horses, fattening 
cattle and sheep as with linseed meal. The amounts which ma\^ be 
safely fed to each kind of stock are fully discussed in the respective 
chapters of Part III. The most extensive use of cottonseed meal is by 
dairymen, for comparatively heavy allowances may be fed to milch 
cows without harm. Fed in too large amounts, cottonseed meal pro- 
duces hard, tallowy butter, light in color and ])()or in flavor. A limited 
quantity has little effect, and is even helpful with cows whose milk 
produces a soft butter. 

For fattening steers and sheep cottonseed meal, in limited amount, 
is one of the most satisfactory of nitrogenous supplements. Great 
numbeis of steers are fattened at the oil-mill factories, often on a 
ration of 6 to 8 lbs. of cottonseed meal with cottonseed hulls or corn 
silage for roughage. In restricted amounts, mixed preferably w'ith 
bulky feed, cottonseed meal has been fed to horses and mules with 
entire success. Altho cottonseed meal is especially poisonous to swine, 
some feeders, guided by experience, use it in small amounts and for 
short periods with little loss. Calves are easily afi'ected by its poison- 
ous properties. Cottonseed meal having a dull color due to improper 
storage, and that from musty and fermented seed should never be used 
for feeding stock. 

This most nutritious feed, the richest in fertilizing constituents of 
all our common feeds of plant origin, is often spread directly on the 
land as a fertilizer in some parts of the country. To secure the full 
value, the meal should first l)e fed to animals and the resulting manure 
applied to the soil. 

Cottonseed hulls. — Cottonseed hulls, which contain somewhat less 
digestible nutrients than oat straw, are extensively employed in the 
South as roughage for cattle feeding. Loav in crude protein, but a 
small part of which is digestible, they have a nutritive ratio of 1 :122, 
the widest of any common feeding stufiP. Obviously, they should be 
used with feeds which are rich in protein. Cottonseed hulls are best 
suited to l)eef cattle, large iuiml)ers of steers being fattened on cotton- 
seed hulls and cottonseed meal, with or without silage. They are 



OIL-BEAKIN(; SF.EDS AND BY-PJJODUCTS 141 

not well adapted to dairy cows, corn stover having a higher feeding 
value. 

Flax seed and linseed oil manufacture. — Over 95 per et. of the fiax 
seed crop of the United States is produced in .Minnesota, the Dakotas, 
and iNIontana. Because of the valuable oil it yields, flax seed is rarely 
used for feeding stock other than 3'oung calves. Well-matured flax 
seeds contain no .starch, the renerye plant food being stored largely as 
oil and pentosans, instead. 

The oil of the flax seed is either extracted by the "old process," 
thru crushing and pressui'e, as in the production of cottonseed oil, or 
by the "new process," when it is dissolved out of the crushed seed with 
naphtha, the residue in either ease being called linseed oil meah linseed 
meal, or simply oil meal. In the United States nearly all the linseed 
oil meal is made by the old process. 

In the manufacture of new-process oil meal the crushed and heated 
seed is placed in large cylinders or percolators, and naphtha poured 
over the mass. This drains out at the bottom carrying the dissolved 
oil. After repeated extractions all traces of the naphtha are driven off 
by letting steam into the percolator. 

Old- and new-process oil meal. — Since the oil is extracted much 
more thoroly by the naphtha process, new-process meal contains only 
about 2.9 per ct. of oil or fat, but carries slightly more digestible pro- 
tein. Old-process meal is preferred by feeders, since it apparently 
has a more laxative action and a more pronounced eti'ect in makiiig the 
coats of animals soft and sleek, due probably to its higher oil content. 

Linseed meal as a feed. — There is no more healthful feed for limited 
use with all farm animals thau linseed cake or meal, with its rich sloi-e 
of crude loi'oteiu, slightly laxative oil, and its mucilaginous, soothing 
propertie.s. Its judicious use is soon apparent in the pliable skin, the 
sleek, oily coat, and the good handling quality of the flesh of animals 
receiving it. It is tlierefore verj^ useful as a conditioner for run-down 
animals and in iitting animals for shows. A small amount is helpful in 
the rations of horses and dairy cows. Opposite in effect to cottonseed 
meal, linseed meal tends to produce soft butter. Fed to fattening 
cattle, sheep, or swdne, the meal regulates the sy.stem and helps to 
ward off ill effects from the continued heavy use of concentrates. Rich 
in protein and all the necessary mineral elements, linseed meal is well 
suited to growing animals. Owing to its popularity, this feed is often 
expen.sive compared with other protein-rich concentrates, and it is 
then not economical to employ it as the chief source of protein in the 
ration, but to restrict its use to amounts sufficient to produce the 
desired tonic and regulative effects. 



142 fi:k])s and ki:i:i)IX(;. Ai;i;ii)(ii':i) 

III lliis (M)unlry llic (Iciiumd is I'liicfly for liiisrrd mcjil instoad of 
the unoTouiul t-ako. probably (hie 1o the fact lliat il is mostly fod 
mixed with other concentrates to dairy cows. For sheep, cake frroiind 
to nnt or pea size is preferable. 

Low-grade linseed meal; other flax products. — Pmc old-jn-ocess 
linseed meal usually contains over -'Jli per el. pi-oteiu. bul some eon- 
(•(>rns are pultiny on the market lower <irade mixtures of linseed 
meal and sereenin<is, earryiiij>' as low as 27 \wv et. .protein. These 
are rarely eeoiunnieal at the prices asked, as they often sell for neai'ly 
as much as a ^'ood izrade of linseed meal. 

Pld.r feed, which consist of Max screeniri.u's. is chiefly used in mixed 
feeds. Containino- only half as nnich protein as linseed meal and 
often havino' a bitter taste due to weed seeds, it is rarely economical. 

Flax plant by-product, sometimes sold incorrecth^ as "flax bran," 
consists of flax pods, broken and immature flax seeds, and portions of 
the stems. Owing to its low value, it is rarely sold alone, but is used 
as a ''filler" in certain proprietary feeds. 

Unscreened /lax oil-feed, or "laxo" cake meal, is the by-product 
obtained in extracting the oil from unscreened flax seed. The value is 
lower than that of linseed, meal, depending on how much screenings it 
contains. 

Soybean. — The soybean is one of the most important agricultural 
plants of northern China and Japan. The bean-like seeds, which carry 
from 16 to 21 per ct. of oil, are used for human food and for feeding 
animals. The oil is also used for human food and in the arts, and the 
resulting soybean meal is employed as a feed for animals and for fer- 
tilizing the land, the same as cottonseed meal. This plant produces 
the largest yield of seed of any legume suited to temperate climates, 
tho now grown in tliis country chiefly for forage. No other plant so 
little grown in the United States at this time promises so nnich to 
agriculture as the soybean, which not only yields protein-rich grain 
and forage but builds up the nitrogen content of the soil. Soybeans 
are adapted to the same range of climate as corn, and, on account of 
their resistance to drought, are especially suited to light, sandy soils. 
"When grown for seed, the}' commonly yield 12 to 40 bushels per acre. 

The seeds contain as much protein and over twice as much fat as 
linseed meal, and are of nearly as high feeding value as cottonseed 
meal. Owing to their richness in protein, soybeans should always be 
fed with carbonaceous concentrates. They are satisfactory for dairy 
cows and growing and fattening stock of all classes. In the South 
pigs are often grazed on the nearly mature beans, saving the labor of 
harvesting. Fed in large amounts, they make soft butter and pork. 
Soybeans should be ground for horses and cattle. Owing to the hig!? 



OlL-IillAK'IXd SKKDS AM) P.V-IMi'ODrcTS 14;{ 

l)ric'e the seed comiiiaiuls, soybeans have not yet Ix'eii exteiisi\('ly fed to 
live stock in this country, most of the crop beinji' used f'oi- seed or foi- 
forage. f?!ee Chapter XIV.) 

Soybean cake or meal. — The residue after the oil has been extracted 
from soybeans carries as much digestible protein as choice cottonseed 
meal, and furnishes slightly more total digestible nutrients. During 
lecent years a considerable amount has been imported from Ihe Orient 
to the Pacific coast states, where it is highly esteemed for finnling 
poultry and dairy cattle. In Europe the unground cake is used and in 
lliis country the meal. Tho high in price, soybean meal is greatly es- 
teemed by western daiiymen, and is often fed in large amounts to cows 
on official tests. 

The peanut and its by-products. — The peanut, or earth nut, is now 
of great importance for stock feeding in the South. The under- 
ground seeds, or nuts, are commonly harvested by turning swine into 
the fields when the seeds are ripe, and allowing them to feed at 
will. While a heavy allowance of peanuts makes soft fat and inferior 
pork, entirely satisfactory ham and bacon are produced when pigs are 
fed partially on peanuts. On exposure to the air. shelled peanuts soon 
become rancid. The vines with the nuts attached may be gathered and 
cured into a nutritious, palatable hay useful with all kinds of .stock. 

Peanut meal or cal<e, resulting from the maiuifacture of peanut oil, 
is a common feed in Europe, being satisfactory for all classes of stock. 
-Meal from hulled nuts is richer in protein than choice cottonseed meal. 
Considerable peanut meal is iiow produced in this country. This is 
chiefly from unhuUed or only partially hulled nuts. The value de- 
pends on the protein content. Peanut meal is excellent for dairy 
cows, beef cattle, sheep, and pigs. Too much may cause soft pork. : 

Peanut hulls, sometimes ground and used for adulterating feeding 
stuffs, ai-e over half fiber and less valuable than common straw. 

Sunflower seed and oil cake. — The sunflower is grown in consider- 
able quantities in Russia but has never assumed any importance in this 
country, chiefly because corn yields much more feed per acre. Oil 
cake from sunfloM^er seed has proved satisfactory foi- all classes of 
stock in Europe, being nearly ecpial to linseed meal. 

Cocoanut meal.—This residue in Ihe manufactui'c of oil from the 
cocoanut is lower in crude ])rotein than the oil )ueals [)reviously dis- 
cussed, but higher than wheat bran. It is used to some extent by 
dairymen in the Pacific coast states and produces butter of good 
• luality and firmness. It may also be fed with success to horses, sheep, 
and swine. Cocoanut meal, especially that high in fat, has a tendency 
to turn rancid in warm weather. 



144 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



V. Olli-FREE LeGT'MINOUS SeEDS 

The Canada field pea. — Tli(> coinmon field or Canada pea succeeds 
best where the spring- and sunniier lieat is iiiodei'ate, as in Canada, tlie 
nortliern states, and in several of the larger Rocky .Mountain valleys. 
No other widely known grain plant of equal possibilities has been so 
generally neglected by the farmers of the northern United States. 
Field-pea grain contains twice as much crude protein as the cereals 
and is high in phosphorus. Fed with corn, peas may form as much as 




Fui. 41. — CowPEAs Are of Great Importance to the Southern 

Stockman 

Tlie cowpoa, <lie most iniportiiiit Ictiume in llie eolton bolt.' pinws on all lypt's 
nf soil, incroasinp the fertility of the land and furnishing rich feed. (From the 
Soufhcrn Ciiltirator.) 



one-half the concentrates for dairy cows. They are relished by horses 
and are excellent for sheep and pigs, being of especial value for grow- 
ing and breeding animals. 

Cowpea. — This bean-like plant from India and China holds an 
important place in southern agriculture because of its large yield of 
forage, and early varieties are now grown as far north as Illinois. 
Since the seed pods ripen unevenly, tliey nnist l)e galhcrcil by hand, 
01* else the d'o]) is cut when about three-fourths of I lie pods are ripe, 



OII.-FI.'KE I.Kdl.MIXorS SKEDS Ur, 

and l^efore the first pods arc sliatteronl nr (lamag'ed. For 1liis reason 
c'owpeas arc nscd mostly for li;iy, silage, and <iraziii<i'. (See ('lia])1ci' 
XIV.) Tlie seed, which rcscmihh's lichl ])cas in (Mtmposil ion, may he 
I'cd to all classes of animals. 

The common field bean. — I\Iany varieties of the common field bean 
are grown in this country for human food, and the cull beans damaged 
by wet are used for animal feeding. They are fed whole in large 
quantities to sheep, producing a solid flesh of good quality. For swine, 
beans should be cooked in salted water and fed in combination with 
corn, barley, etc. ; fed alone they produce soft jiork and lard with a low 
melting point. 

QFESTIONR 

1. Discuss the value of rice and its by-products for stock fecdin;;. 

2. Why are the sorghums important in llio semi-arid districts? Into what 
two classes are they divided? 

3. Name four types of grain sorgluims and discuss thoir value. 

4. Describe the process of making cottonseed oil and cottonseed meal. Into 
what classes is cottonseed meal divided? 

5. How would you use cottonseed meal in stock feeding? 

6. What is the difference between old- and ne\v-]ir()cess linseed meal? 

7. Compare linseed meal and cottonseed meal as feeds. 
S. Discuss tlie value of soybfans and soybean meal. 

!). Wliat is the cliief use of ])canuts for stock feeding? 
10. Kame three oil-free leguminous seeds and state their use for farm aniiuiils. 



CHAPTER XI 

MISCELLAXEOI'S CONCENTRATES— FEEDIXf! STUFFS 
CONTROL— CONDI M ENTAL FOODS 

I. Cow's ]\IlLK AND ITS DV-pRODUCTS 

Milk is unexcelled as a fcod for young; animals, because it contains 
all the nutrients in proper proportion to produce rapid growth. The 
proteins are usually well-balanced and are thus more efficient for 
urowth than those of the cereals. Milk is also rich in mineral matter, 
especially lime and phosphoric acid, and in ihe fat-soluble vitaminc. 
For the l)est protits from dairying, the d:iiry by-products must be fed 
in such a manner as to secure tlieir full value. 

V/hole milk. — Because of the high vylue of whole cow's milk for 
liiiinan footl it is not commonly fed to stock, except to calves for the 
lirst few weeks. Howevei-, one should not hesitate to use whole milk 
for rearing an orphan foal or lamb or in fitting young stock for show. 

Whole milk contains from 2.5 to 4.0 per et. protein, which consists 
chiefly of casein, with 0.4 to 0.9 per ct. albumin and traces of other 
proteins. It carries from 4 to 5 per ct. of milk sugar, a carbohydrate, 
which is only slightly SAveet and has about the same feeding value as 
starch. AVlien milk sours, some of the sugar is changed to lactic acid, 
which curdles the casein. As is shown in Chapter XX, the fat content 
of cow's milk varies widely, depending chiefly on breed, individuality, 
and the portion of the milk drawn, the strippings being much the 
richest in fat. 

Experiments b}^ Beach at the Connecticut (Storrs) Station^ show 
that for calves, lambs, and pigs milk rich in fat is less valuable per 
pound of total dry matter than milk poor in fat, or even skim milk. 
Rich milk may cause digestive troubles, especially with ver}- young 
animals. 

Skim milk. — Being rich in protein and mineral matter, skim milk 
excels in building the muscles and bones of young animals. Separator 
skim milk contains 3.8 per ct. protein, 5.2 per ct. nitrogen-free extract, 
and 0.1 to 0.2 per ct. fat. It is thus a protein-rich feed, having the 
narrow nutritive ratio of 1 :1.5. Therefore, even for young animals it 

1 Conn. (Storrs) V,u\. 31. 

146 



MlSCKLLAXKorS COXt'KXTK'ATKS 



147 



should !)(' i'cd wilh such carlHouiccous feeds as coi'u. rathei- thau with 
proteiu-i-ic'li feeds like wheat middlings aud linseed meal. Carefnl 
dairymen j-aise just as thrifty ealves when skim milk is gradually sub- 
stituted for whole milk during the first 4 to 6 weeks, and oidy skim 
milk given Ihereaftei", as wheu ex- 
pensive whole milk is fed longer. 
For swiiu", esjjeeially young jiigs, 
skim milk is unsurpassed as a sup- 
plement to the earhonaeeous grains. 
The money value of skim milk as a 
sui^plement to the grains for -pigs is 
discussed in Chapter XXVIll. 
Foals W'hose dams furnisli insuffi- 
eient milk thrive on skim milk. It 
may also be fed to horses and 
j)oultry. Skim milk is most valu- 
able for young animals when it 
comes sweet and warm from the 
sejiarator. 

Buttermilk. — This by-product, 
nuich like skim milk in composi- 
1 ion, is about equal to skim milk for 
pigs. Sometimes calves are reared 
on it, but extreme care is necessary 
in accustoming them to it and in 
kee|)ing all utensils clean. Butter- 
milk diluted at the creamery with 
water has its value reduced. If 
kept in tilth}' tanks it ferments and 
Ix^comes dangerous. 

Whey. — Whey contains the sugar, albumin, and a large part of 
the ash of milk, while the casein and most of the fat go into the cheese. 
Whey contains only 0.8 per ct. protein, but this is of excellent quality 
to balance the deficiencies of the protein in the grains. (See Page 
;'66.) ^lore watery than skim milk, it contains only (i.G per ct. dry 
matter. Whey is usually fed to pigs, for which it has about half 
the value of skim milk. At best, it is a poor feed for calves, and 
can be successfully used only b}' exercising the utmost care and clean- 
liness. Slightly soured whey gives as good results as when sweet, 
but decomposing whey kept in filthy vessels is unfit for stock. 

Spreading disease thru dairy by-products. — Since milk from many 
iai'ms is mixed at the creamery and cheese factory, unless the skim 




Fig. 42.— Skim Milk Is Ideal for 
Young Animals, as It Is llich in 
Protein of the Higliest Qualily and 
in ?ilineral ]\Iatter. (From, W i>- 
coiisin Station.) 



148 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

milk, l)nttprniilk, and wiiey ai"c tlioroly iiasteui'i/ed at a temperature 
of 180° F. before beiuji' taken l)ack to the fai'ius, bovine tubereulosis 
and other diseases may be w i(b'l\' s])read from jjossibly a single diseased 
herd. Tiie pasteuri/ed i)roduet also keeps better anil is less likely to 
l)rodncc scours. 

A trial at the Iowa Station - shows how readily tuberculosis may be 
spread thru skim milk. Forty pigs, supposedly free from tubereulosis, 
were divided into 4 lots. Two lots were ke])t on separate pastures and 
two in dry lots. Corn and pasteurised skim milk were fed to all. How- 
ever, the g'erms of tuberculosis were put into the milk of one lot on 
pasture and one lot in the yard, just before feeding. After 19G days 
the pigs were slaughtered. It was found that every animal in the 2 lots 
receiving infected milk, 20 in all, was tuberculous, M'hile of those not 
given infected milk, 2 were tuberculous and 18 free from the disease. 



II. Packixg House By-Products 

The packing house by-products, tankage or meat meal, meat scrap, 
dried blood, and meat-and-bone meal, are extremely rich in highly 
digestible, well-balanced protein. Most of them are also rich in cal- 
cium and phosphorus, since they contain more or less bone. As they 
are high in price, the feeder should understand their nature and eco- 
nomical use. 

Tankage or meat meal. — At the packing ])lants waste meat, scrap 
bones, and fat trinniiings are tlioroly steam-cooked under high pressure. 
The fat, while yet liquid, is drawn off and the residue is then dried and 
ground to a tine meal. The resulting tankage, also called meat meal, 
contains from 40 to 60 per et. protein and from 1 to 10 per ct. fat. 
The variation in ])rotein is due chiefly to the amount of bone present. 
On account of the wide range between different grades, taidaige should 
always be i^urchased on guarantee of composition, for the value 
depends primarily on the protein content. Being thoroly cooked under 
pressure, tankage is sterilized, so that it cannot carry disease to animals 
fed on it. In the manufacture of the best grades of tankage, carcasses 
condemned because of disease are not used. 

Tankage or meat meal is generally' fed to pigs and poultry, ranking 
next to skim milk as a supplement for corn and other carbonaceous 
grains. Owing to its richness in protein, 10 per ct. of tankage fed with 
!)0 ])er ct. of corn or other cereals is sutScient to balance the ration 
for ])igs over 100 lbs. in weight, but younger ones need somewhat more. 
i\lixed with other feeds, it may be fed to cattle, sheep, and horses, 

^ Iowa I'.ul. O'i. 



MISCELLANEOUS CONCENTKATES 



149 



ebpeeially eolt.s. If inueli bone i.s prescMit, the proiliK't is leriueil iiieat- 
aiid-bone meal. This is used chiefly for poultry. The lower grades 
of tankage are sometimes adulterated with hair or peat. 

Meat scrap. — ]Meat scrap, used for poultry feeding, consists chiefly 
of meat trimmings which have been cooked to extract as much of the 
fat as possible and then ground to varying degrees of lineness. It 
resembles tankage in composition, the content of protein and mineral 
iUatter varying quite widely, due chiefly' to the amount of bone present. 

Pork cracklings. — This residue from the manufacture of lard is uol 




Fig. 43. — A Portion op the Union Stock Yards at Chicago 

The C'liicajro I'nion Stock Yards occupy an area of ,500 acres, and have 25 miles 
of streets and .300 niiU>s of railway trades. Tlie yards woiihl liold at one tinv^ 
75,01)0 cattle, 125,000 sheep, 300,000 hogs, and 0,000 horses and mules. Some of 
the large packing plants may be seen in the background at the right. 

commonly found on the market but may often be obtained cheaply 
from local slaughter houses. Pork cracklings contain over 30 per ct. 
fat and about 7 per ct. less protein than the best grades of tankage. 
They are fully as valuable as tankage for swine. 

Blood meal. — Blood meal or dried blood (sometimes called blood 
flour when finely ground) carries over 80 per ct. protein, but no bone, 
and is therefore low in ash. It is usually high in price and is not fed 
extensively except to young pigs or calves as a milk substitute, and to 
sickly animals. One to 2 lbs. per head daily has been found satis- 
factory for dairy cows. 

Dried fish; fish meal. — In Euroi)e dried fish and fish meal, A\hich 
are nearly as high in protein as tankage, are often used for feeding 
slock. In this country fish niea! has provoi; 1i) Ix' an excellent prctein- 
ricli feed for swine, being about e lu.il to tankaiic 



150 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABHIDGKD 

Bone meal. — AVheii rations lack cale-ium and phosj)li()rus, these vital 
mineral nutrients may be furnished in the form of bone meal, also 
called ground bone. Ground rock phosphate is usually a cheaper 
and probably as effective a mineral supplement. Bone meal is used 
chiefly for pigs and poultry. 

111. Sugar Factory By-Products. Other Feeds 

In making beet sugar the beets are first washed and then cut into 
V-shaped strips. Next the juice is extracted, leaving the b^'-product 
known as ivet beet pulp. The juice is then purified and evaporated 
until the sugar crystallizes. Finally, the grains of sugar are sepa- 
rated from the residual molasses by centrifugal force. 

Wet beet pulp. — This watery feed which contains only about 10 
per ct. of solids spoils rapidly on expoeure to the air, and is therefore 
usually fed as soured or ensilf^d pulp. It may be ensiled in an ordi- 
nary silo, in earthen pits, or in large heaps above the ground where 
the deca}' of the outside la^-er protects the interior from the air. 
Tho carrying only 1 to 2 per ct. of sugar, wet beet pulp contains con- 
siderable of other easil}^ digested carbohydrates. Like roots, it should 
be fed with dry feeds. IMost of the mineral matter is extracted from 
the beets along with the sugar and the pulp is also low in protein. 
Therefore, when heavy allowances of pulp are fed, one should see that 
the animals are supplied with sufficient mineral matter and protein. 
Fortunately, the pulp is commonly fed with legume hay, Avhich is 
high in both protein and mineral matter. 

Thousands of cattle and tens of thousands of sheep are annually 
fattened near the western beet-sugar factories on wet, soured, beet 
pulp, fed with alfalfa hay and a limited allowance of grain. The 
wet pulp is also excellent for dairy cows, producing good-flavored 
milk when not fed in excess. It may also be fed to idle horses. 

Dried beet pulp. — ]\Iany beet-sugar factories are now equipped 
with machinery for drying the pulp. Dried beet pulp, wdiich contains 
about 60 per ct. nitrogen-free extract, is worth nearly as much as corn 
or barley for dairy cows, beef cattle, or sheep. Since it is low in pro- 
tein it should be fed, like corn, with i)rotein-ricli feeds. 

Because dried beet pulp al«orl)s a great deal of water, it is advis- 
able to moisten the dried ])ulp with 2 to -i times its weight of w^ater 
before feeding, when large amounts ai'e used. Sometimes the mois- 
tened pulp is fed as a substitute foi- eoi'u silage to dairy (.'ows, tho 
usually the latter is more economical. Dried beet pulp is excellent 
I'oi- dairy cows on official test which are receiving a heavy concenti'ate 
allowance, as it is a bulkv feed and also has ;) slightlv laxative effect. 



MISCELLANEOUS CONCENTRATES 



151 



Beet molasses. — Molasses from beet -sugar factories, wliieli contains 
about 66 per et. nitrogen-free extract, nearly all sugar, is a valuable 
carbonaceous feed, if properly used The feeding value of the mo- 
lasses is about three-fourths that of corn. Both beet and cane molasses 
are low in crude protein, and the small amount present is of low 
nutritive value, ^lolasses should thus be used with protein-rich 
feeds. Because of its laxative nature animals should be gradually 
accustomed to this feed, and the amount given daily per 1,000 lbs. live 
weight should be limited as follows: Driving horses may be fed 2.5 




Fig. 44. — Cattle "Fattening on Wet Beet Pulp in the West 

The beet pulp is brought to the feed lots on the tramway. Note the beet- 
sugar factory in tlie background. 

lbs. and draft hor.ses 4 lbs. or even more; dairy cows up to 3 
lbs. ; fattening cattle to 8 lbs. ; fattening sheep to 5 lbs. ; and fattening 
swine to 10 lbs. Breeding animals should receive less than fat- 
tening ones, and but little for some weeks before delivery. Because 
of its sticky nature, the molasses is usually distributed over hay or 
straw, and large feedcrii in the West use machines for mixing it with 
cut roughage. 

Molasses-beet pulp. — Beet molasses is sometimes combined with 
beet pulp and dried, forming dried niolasses-beet i)nlp. This feed is 



152 FKIODS AND FHHDIXCI, ABKIDUllD 

soiiu'wiiat more palalalile and (liy'ostihlc than orelinary drietl pulp and 
]ias oqual or slightly liiglier feeding' value. 

Beet tops. — iJeet tops, eonsisting- of the leaves and upi)er i)ortion of 
the beet root, ai"c often fed either fresh or ensiled to animals. They 
may be ensiled in pits or silos in alternate layers with straw, or mixed 
with cut dry corn fodder or stover. The leaves have about half the 
feeding value of roots. As they tend to purge the animals, they 
should be fed only in limited amounts and always with dry roughage. 
Kellner advises furnishing 3 ounces of chalk or ground limestone for 
every 100 lbs. of leaves, as otherwise the oxalic acid the}" contain may 
prove harmful. 

Cane molasses. — Cane molasses, or blackstrap, a by-product of the 
manufacture of cane sugar, is much relished by farm animals and • 
does not have the purging effect of beet molasses when fed in lai'ge 
amounts. In the South cane molasses is often one of the cheapest 
feeds and is extensively fed to horses, mules, and other animals. In 
the North it is sometimes so high priced that corn meal and similai- 
feeds are more economical sources of carbohydrates. For imi)roving 
unpalatable feeds, as a tonic for unthrifty animals, and as a colic pre- 
ventive for horses, from 2 to 3 Ihs. of molasses daily is helpful. Like 
beet molasses, blackstrap is largely used in mixed feeds. 

Molasses feeds. — JMolasses feeds consist of molasses combined with 
a Avide variety of products, from high-protein feeds like cottonseed 
meal to such low-grade, trashy refuse as peanut hulls. Many contain 
screenings but these are now usually so finely ground as to destroy all 
weed seeds. Deception is easy in such feeds because the molasses 
masks the other ingredients and permits low-grade waste products to 
be sold at a price that should buy high-grade concentrates. If sold 
at prices which are reasonable as compared w^ith the cost of equal 
amounts of nutrients in high-grade straight concentrates, nothing can 
be said against the use of reliable feeds of this class. They should be 
purchased only from trustworthy dealers and on definite guarantee 
of comjjosition. Especial attention should be paid to the fiber guar- 
antee, for this shows to what degree low-grade products have been 
used. 

Molassine meal consists of molasses absorbed by sphagnum moss or 
peat. Peat has no nutritive value for farm animals and the moss but 
little. Almost the only nutriment is in the molasses, which can le 
purchased cheaper and mixed with better roughage on the farm. 

Sugar. — Tho the nutritive value of sugar is no greater than that of 
starch, animals show great fondness for it and it is often useful for 
stinnilating the appetite and in lifting animals for shows. 

Dried distillers' grains. — In the manufacture of alcohol and dis- 



MISCELLANEOUS CONCENTKATES 15.3 

tilled liquors from cereals, after being ground the corn, rye, etc., are 
treated ^vith a solution of nuut to change the starch to sugar, Avhich 
is then changed to alcohol by the action of yeast. The alcohol is next 
distilled oft' leaving a watery residue known as distillers' slops. The 
solid matter from this is dried to form dried distillers' grains, which 
contain the portions of the grain not acted upon during the fermenta- 
tions; that is, the crude protein, fiber, fat and the more insoluble 
carbohydrates. Distillers' grains from corn usually contain about 30 
per ct. protein and rank between gluten feed and linseed or cotton- 
seed meal in feeding value. Those from rye contaiii about 23 per ct. 
protein, and are thus of considerably lower value. 

Because of their bulky nature and high nutritive value, dried dis- 
tillers' grains are one of the best high-protein concentrates for dairy 
cows. Not being especially palatable, they should be mixed with 
better-liked feeds and the allowance restricted to 2 to 4 lbs. per head 
daily. Tho the grains are not relished by horses, they may form 
one-fourth the concentrate allowance. They serve well as part of the 
concentrates for fattening steers and sheep, but are too bulky for ex- 
tensive feeding to pigs. 

Salvage grain. — Grain damaged by fire, smoke, or water in ware- 
house fires is known as salvage grain. Its value depends on how 
much it is damaged and on the amount of screenings present. 

Cocoa shells. — This by-product of the manufacture of cocoa and 
chocolate consists of the hard outside coating, or bran, of the cocoa 
bean. The shells, which are dark brown and brittle, are used in a 
few proprietary feeds. They are of low digestibility and worth not 
over half as much as corn meal. 

Proprietary and mixed feeds. — There are now on the market a host 
of mixed feeds, chiefly sold under proprietary names. Their compo- 
sition dift'ers widely, some containing only high-grade concentrates 
like wheat bran, cottonseed meal, malt sprouts, gluten feed, etc. 
Others contain more or less screenings or light-weight grain, which 
will in general be of lower value than good-quality grain. Many of 
these feeds contain such low-grade by-products as oat hulls, ground 
corn cobs, flax plant by-product, etc., and some consist largely of such 
material. Altho the percentages of crude protein, fat, and fiber in 
any given brand are usually kept at the same figure from month to 
month, the amounts of the separate ingredients in the feed are seldom 
guaranteed. Thus the feed put out this year under a certain propri- 
etary name may not ])e the same as that sold next year inider the same 
name and guarantee. For this reason practically no trials to deter- 
mine the values of these mixtures have been conducted by the experi- 
ment stations. 



.154 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABKIDGED 

]\Iany mixed feeds are the result of honest and intelligent efforts to 
furnish a ready-mixed "balanced" concentrate mixture for tlie vari- 
ous classes of farm animals. Such have won good reputations among 
intelligent feeders. Others are merely attempts to delude the pur- 
chaser into paying as much for mixtures of low-grade, trashy by- 
products as high-class concentrates would cost. All mixed feeds 
should be purchased not on the strength of a "fancy" name, but on 
the guarantee of the amounts of crude protein, fat, and fiber present 
in the mixture. By comparing the fiber guarantee with the fiber con- 
tent of well-known unmixed concentrates, as given in Appendix Table 
I, one ma}^ estimate the extent to which such refuse as oat hulls and 
ground corn cobs have been added. Such materials, high in fiber, 
furnish little nutriment, tho they may give bulk to an otherwise heavy 
mixture. Before buying mixed feeds, the wise feeder will compare 
the amount of nutrients he can secure for each dollar in these feeds 
and in the unmixed standard by-products. 

IV. Commercial. Feeding Stuffs Control 

Because it is often impossible for the stockman to tell from the ap- 
])earance of a commercial feed whether it is of standard quality or 
has been adulterated, laws have been enacted to protect honest dealers 
and manufacturers and the users of commercial feeds alike. 

Regulation of commercial feeds. — ]Many of the states now have laws 
which require that each package of concentrated feed bear a label, 
tag, or statement giving the percentages of crude protein and fat the 
feed contains. Some states wisely re(iuire that the maximum amount 
of fiber be guaranteed. (This means that the feed must not contain 
more fiber than the guarantee states.) In others all ingredients in 
mixed feeds must be stated. 

Large users of commercial feeds are usually experienced buyers 
who purchase only the better grade of standard feeding stuffs at 
close prices, or secure such materials as screenings, etc., knowing fully 
their composition and value. It is the small buyer, often feeling the 
pinch of poverty, who is most easily ensnared by the extravagant 
claims and catchy names of the low-grade, trashy articles. In his at- 
tempt to secure something that sells for less than is demanded for 
standard goods, he forgets that these cheap commercial feeds are 
really more like roughages than concentrates, and roughages can be 
produced on most farms far more economically than they can be pur- 
chased ill 1)ags from the feed dealer. Low-grade feeding stuffs, no 
matter what their names, will bring hardship to the animals fed on 
them, and to the owners of such animals as well. When in doubt as 



MISCELLANEOUS CONCENTRATES 155 

to the merits of a feeding stuff, one should consult the feed control 
officials of his state, or buy only the pure, unmixed grains, straight 
milling or factory by-products, or high-grade proprietary feeds that 
have won good reputations. 

A guide in purchasing- commercial feeds. — Before purchasing com- 
mercial feeding stuffs, the guaranteed composition should bo obtained 
and compared with the average composition given for the same feed in 
Appendix Table I. If the feed is much lower in crude protein or fat, 
or noticeably higher in fiber than there shown, it should be viewed 
with suspicion. The feed should also be free from mold and rancid- 
ity. 

V. CONDIMENTAL OR StOCK FoODS 

In spite of the advice of the experiment stations to the contrary, 
American farmers continue to spend millions of dollars for various 
proprietary articles called "stock foods," "condition powders," etc., 
which often cost 10 to 30 cents or more per pound. 

Composition of stock foods. — The better class of stock foods have 
as their basis such substances as linseed meal or wheat middlings, 
while the cheaper ones contain ground screenings, low-grade milling 
off'al, the ground bark of trees, etc. To this "filling," is added a 
small percentage of materials like common salt, charcoal, copperas, 
fenugreek, gentian, pepper, epsom salts, etc. Claims are made that a 
tablespoonful of the compound with each feed will cause stock to 
grow faster, fatten quicker, yield richer milk, etc., etc. Yet this 
amount supplies only an insignificant part of the dose of these drugs 
which is prescribed for ailing animals by competent veterinarians. 
Farm animals managed "with reasonable care have appetites that do 
not need stimulating. Sick animals or those out of condition require 
specific treatment, not a cure-all. A good manager of livestock has 
no use for expensive conditioners aiid a poor one will never have fine 
stock by using them. 

In rare cases some conditioner may be helpful in stimulating the 
appetite or otherwise improving the general thrift of the animal. To 
cover such cases the following formulae are given : 

A formula recommended by Dr. F. B, Hadley of the Wisconsin 
Station is: Common salt, 280 lbs.; dried iron sulphate, 16 lbs.; 
powdered wood charcoal, 12 lbs. ; and flowers of sulphur, 8 lbs. These 
materials should be well mixed or ground together to make a powder. 
This mixture, which it will be noted consists chiefly of common salt, 
should be kept in suitable boxes so that tJie animals may have free 
access to it. 

Artificial Carlsbad salt has recently come into vogue among veter- 
inarians as a conditioner, especially for horses. The formula for this 



156 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABIUDGED 

is as follows: Dried sodiuui sulphate, 40 parts by weight; sodium 
bicarbonate, 35 parts; common salt, 15 parts; potassium sulphate, 2 
parts. The ingredients should be mixed and powdered. For mature 
horses, 1 to 2 heaping tablespoonfuls should be given 2 or 3 times daily 
on the feed; and for mature cattle 1.5 to 3 heaping tablespoonfuls. 
The dose for swine or sheep is one-fifth as much as for horses. Half- 
grown animals should be given half as much as mature ones ; younger 
animals oi\e-eighth to one-fourth the full dose; and sucklings, one- 
sixteenth the full dose. 

The flattering testimonials for many of the stock foods may be ex- 
plained without granting any special virtue to the food. These foods 
are usually accompanied by directions which advocate liberal feeding 
and good care of animals getting the food in order to "secure the 
benefits of the tonic." Following this advice, the farmer feeds and 
cares for his stock bett.er than ever before, and obtains better results, 
due not to the stock food, but to the^ directions which accompanied it. 
The wise feeder will not purchase advice along with costly condi- 
mcntal foods but Avill secure it in standard agricultural books and 
papers, or from the experiment stations and the United States De- 
partment of Agriculture. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give the average composition of cow's milk and tell of the uses of skim 
milk, huttermilk, and whey in feeding. 

2. "Why should dairy by-products he pasteurized before feeding? 
.'^>. How is tankage produced and what are its uses for feeding? 

4. Tell something aljout the other animal by-products fed to stock. 

5. How is wet beet pulp obtained and what are the uses of both the Avet 
and the dried beet pulp? 

fi. Discuss briefly the properties and A-alue of both beet and cane molasses. 

7. Tell how dried distillers' grains are produced and discuss their feeding 
value. 

S. What have you learned about proprietary feeds? 

n. "What is meant by feeding stuffs control aii<l what are its advantages to 
tlie stockman? 
10. "Would vou buv stock foods? State vour reasons. 



CHAPTER XII 

INDIAN CORN AND THE SORGHUMS FOR FORAGE 

I. Indian' Corn 

Indian corn, the imperial agrienltural plant of Ameriea, produces 
under favorable conditions from 10 to 25 tons of green forage per 
acre, containing from 4,000 to 10,000 lbs. of dry matter. When 
grown in a dense mass but little seed forms, and we have a rank grass 
which cures into a bright, nutritious, coarse hay. If the plants grow 
some distance apart, a large yield of grain results, with excellent 
forage as a secondary product. Were a seedsman to advertise In- 
dian corn by a new name, recounting its actual merits while in- 
geniously concealing its identity, either his claims would be discred- 
ited or he would have an unlimited demand for the seed of this sup- 
posed novelty. 

To fix in mind the manner in which corn grows and elal)orates food 
for animals, before proceeding with the further study of this crop the 
student should review the study of an acre of corn given in Chapter 
I. The importance of corn as a cereal has already been discussed in 
Cliapter IX. 

Corn as a forage plant. — Tiie entire fresh green corn plant may be 
fed as a soiling crop, it may l)e ensiled or cured as fodder corn, or the 
grain may be removed and tiie remaining stover used for feed. As 
shown later, ensiling is by far the most satisfactory means of ])re- 
.serving the entire crop as forage. 

The term corn fodder or fodder corn is applied to corn plants, 
either fresh or cured, which have been grown primarily for forage, 
with all of the ears, if any, originally produced. SJiock corn and 
bundle corn are terms used for fodder corn which carries much grain, 
but which is fed without husking. Corn stover is the term applied 
to cured shock corn from which the ears have been removed. The 
terms fodder and stover are also applied to such crops as the sorghums. 
For example, kafir forage is called either kafir fodder or kafir stover, 
depending on whether or not the heads have been removed. 

Like the corn grain, corn forage is low in crude protein compared 
with carbohydrates and fat. As shown in Appendix Tal)le 111, tJie 
nutritive ratio of corn silage is 1 :15.1, and that of fodder corn 1 :13.7 
to 1 :17.1, while corn stover has tlie very wide nutritive ratio of 1 :21.0 
or over. Hence, these roughages should ))e supplemented by feeds 

U7 



158 FEEDS AND FEEDlXd, AlJWJl)(i KD 

rich in crude protein. Corn forage is fair in phosphorus and high in 
lime, compared with corn and the other cereal grains. 

Thickness of planting. — How thiei^ to plant corn for forage to se- 
cure the liighcst feeding value, has been studied at several experiment 
stations. The following table shows the results secured at the Illinois 
Station ^ where corn was planted on good prairie soil from 3 to 24 
inches apart in the row, all rows being 3 feet 8 inches apart : 

Resulls of planting corn kernels various distances apart in rows 

Good Poor ctovpr '^°*''' Stover 

Distance between ears ears '^ ner di^'estible for each 

kernels in row per per ' ^ nutrients 11). of 

acre neve per acre corn 

Bu. Bu. Tons Lbs. Lbs. 

3 inches 13 40 4.8 0,218 3.0 

inches 37 30 3.7 5,9S0 1.9 

'9 incites 55 22 3.1 5,539 1.5 

12 incites 73 10 3.0 5,593 1.3 

15 inches 03 11 2.9 5,180 1.4 

24 inclips 49 2.5 4,207 1.5 

^Vith the kernels but 3 inches apart in the row there were 46 bushels 
of "nubbins," or poor ears, and only 13 bushels of sound ears per 
acre. However, this thick planting gave the largest returns in di- 
gestible nutrient.s — over 6,000 lbs. per acre, and there was the largest 
amount of stover for each pound of corn. The largest yield of sound 
ear corn was secured by planting the kernels 12 inches apart in the 
row, the returns being 73 bushels of sound and 16 bushels of poor ears 
per acre, with only 600 lbs. less digestible matter than from planting 
the kernels 4 times as thickly. These and other trials show that 
when corn is to be grown for forage, the seed should be planted so 
thickly that but few good ears form. If the chief object is graii', 
with stover secondary, the kernels should be planted at such a dis- 
tance apart that all plants may produce full-sized ears. No general 
rule can be given as to the definite amount of seed to be planted per 
acre, for this varies greatly and is determined by local conditions. 
One should know accurately the capacity of his land for corn, and 
jeed accordingly. 

Nutrients in grain and stover. — Even when grown for the grain, a 
considerable part of the feeding value of the corn crop is in the stover. 
In trials at 4 northern stations - an average yield of 4,415 lbs. of ear 
corn and 3,838 lbs. of stover was secured per acre. The stover con- 
tained one-fourth of the digestible crude protein and over one-third 
of the total digestible nutrients in the crop. The amount of total di- 
gestible nutrients it contains measures the value of the stover for 

1 Hunt and :\Iorrow, 111. Bui. 13. 

- Summarized i)y Armsby, Pcnn. Rpt. 1887. 



CORN AND THE SORGPIUMS FOR FORAGE 



159 



merely carrying animals thru the winter. For fattening animals, 
dairy cows producing heavy yields of milk, and horses at hard work, 
a more accurate measure of its value is the net energy it supplies. 
Yet, even on this basis the stover furnished one-fourth the net energy 
of the crop. This shows clearly the loss of animal food which occurs 
each 3'ear when unnumbered acres of corn stover are allowed to decaj^ 
in the fields. 

Corn silage. — Indian corn is pre-eminently a silage plant. The 
solid, succulent stems and broad leaves when cut into short lengths 




Fig. 45. — ^Large, Well-made Shocks op Corn Lessen the "Wastage 

i (J lessen the loss from Aveatlieriufr, corn fodder and stover should be placed 
in large, well-made shocl-cs. Even tlien a greater loss usually occurs than when 
tlie corn is ensiled. 

pack closely and form a solid mass which not only keeps well but fur- 
nishes a product that is greatly relished by stock and is consumed 
with little waste. Altho with enlarging experience the use of other 
crops for silage is increasing rapidly, by far the greater portion of 
all the forage stored in silos in this country is corn. The use of 
corn silage has practically revolutionized the feeding of dairy cattle 
over a large part of the United States, and is fast becoming almost 
equally important in the feeding of beef cattle and sheep. Thru its 



KK) FEEDS .\..\l) 1'M:i:i)l.\(i. AI'.IMDdEn 

use the cost of ])ro(,luciii<,^ milk and ]neal may be materially lowered 
all over the corn belt. Not only is corn silage excellent for cattle and 
sheep, but it may be used in a limited way with horses that are idle or 
at light work. The yield of silage per acre varies widely with the 
soil and season. A 50-bushel crop of corn sliould make fi-om S to 10 
tons of silage, depending on the size and lealiness of the stalks. Tlic 
importance of coi'ii silage on American farms and tlio mctliods of 
f(HMliug it are discussed further in rhai)1er XVT and in llie rcsjieetive 
chai)ters of Pait III. 

Corn silage vs. corn fodder. — Ensiling is the best method of pre- 
serving corn forage, for loss nutrients are lost than when the ci'op is 
cured as corn fodder, and corn silage also has a higher feeding value 
lliaii the same amount of diy matter in cured corn fodder. Even 
whon cured in well-made shocks, corn fodder or stover standing in 
the field for a few months loses at least 15 per ct. and usually nearer 
20 per ct. of the dry matter it contains, due to weathering and to 
fermentations which gradually waste the forage. The losses fall 
chiefly on the most valuable parts of the plant — the protein, sugar, 
and starch — which are less resistant and more soluble than tlie fiber. 

Losses also occur when corn fodder is ensiled, due to the fermenta- 
tions which take place in the ensiling process. The extent of the losses 
will vary quite widely, depending on the stage of maturity of the corn 
when ensiled, the care with which the cut fodder is i)acked in the silo. 
1lie tightness of the silo walls and doors, and the depth of the silo. 
Considering all available data, we may conclude that in a silo 30 ft. 
deep or over, the total loss of dry matter should not be over 15 per ct.. 
if reasonable care is taken to pack the silage and to reduce the losses at 
the surface of the silage after filling. The losses of dry matter are 
therefore about 5 per ct. lower when the corn crop is ensiled than when 
it is cured as dry fodder. 

The feeding ti'ials with dairy cows and steers reported in Part TIT 
show that milage gives better results than a corresponding amount of 
dry fodder. This is doubtless due to the fact that cattle usually 
reject the dry butts of the corn stalks, even when finely cut, while in 
silage tliey are eaten. ^Moreover, owing to the great palatability of 
this succulent feed, silage-fed animals consume a larger ration, and 
more nutrients are hence available for milk or flesh production after 
supplying the wants of the body. Just as important as these advan- 
tages is the fact that, like other succulent feeds, silage has a bene- 
ficial laxative effect, and is a valuable aid in keeping fai'm animals 
thrifty. 

The com for silage. — In eniTier years corn was usually ensiled 



COim AND THE SOlUiliUMS FOK' FOKAGE 101 

before the kei'iiels Avere in tlie <i];i/in,u' stajic. ]"]x})eri('nco lias shown, 
however, that mueh sweeter sihigc is produced wlieii eoni is not ensiled 
until the kernels have hardened and glazed. (With the dent varieties 
when they are well dented.) The rapid storage of high-quality 
luitrients, pointed out in Chapter 1, which takes place during the 
glazing stage and later, is an even more important reason for waiting 
until the corn is nearly mature. The crop should, however, be cut for 
.silage while most of the leaves are yet green. 

In the North the question arises as to whether to grow for silage the 
smaller northern varieties of corn, or the tall, late southern kinds 
which will not mature before frost. Trials have shown that these 
rank growing varieties will yield a larger amount of digestible nu- 
trients per acre than the smaller ones, but such immature corn makes 
silage which is sour and contains but little grain. The stockman with 
])lenty of hay, straw, and stover to feed will wish to till his silo with a 
richer feed than the southern corn yields, and will therefore use north- 
ern dent or flint varieties which mature. To secure a large tonnage, 
he will i)lant the crop -somewhat more thickly than for grain produc- 
tion, but yet so as to secure a relatively large proportion of grain to 
roughage. He will thus secure a rich silage which will materially 
reduce the amount of concentrates required for his stock. 

In late seasons it is best to let corn stand till after frost rather than 
ensile it too green, for satisfactory silage can be made from frosted 
corn, and the crop may mature to a considerable extent before a 
severe frost comes. If the cro]) is killed by frost, it should be ensiled 
quickly, for the storm which usually soon follows will wash out much 
mitriment from the frosted forage, and the wind will soon whip otf 
the drie'd, brittle leaves. If the plants dry out before all the crop can 
be ensiled, water .should be added as tlie silo is filled to insure the 
necessary fermentations that preserve the silage. 

Corn fodder or stover silage. — In recent years it has been found 
lliiif silage ran bo made from cured corn or sorghum forage. AVhen 
cut into the silo, thoroly moistened, and w'ell-packed, it will undergo 
fermentation similar to that Avhich occurs Avith green material, and 
will thus be preserved in a satisfactory manner. Tho usually le.ss 
palatable than silage from green fodder, this product has an aromatic 
silage odor and is readily consumed by stock with less waste than is 
dry fodder or stover. This method is now followed by man.y farmers, 
especially in the plains region, some filling their silos three times 
a year — in the fall with green corn or sorghum, and later with the 
cured forage. It is necessary to add enough water so that the nmterial 
will pack well and then to tramp it down with especial thoroness; 
otherwise the mass will sjxjil. Tho the water may be added to the 



1G2 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABK'IDGKD 

cut material in the silo, it can be distribntcd more evenly if a stream 
is run into the blower, and then more water sprinkled over the cut 
fodder in the silo as it is filled. Due to the widely varying water con- 
tent of field-cured corn forage, it is impossible to state definitely the 
amount of water to be added. Some recommend adding about an 
equal weight of w^ater to the forage, others add just enough so that 
water nuiy be squeezed out of the cut material. 

Dry corn fodder. — Tho not as palatable and valuable as corn silage, 
corn grown thickly and cured as dry fodder while the leaves are yet 
green makes a coarse hay of high feeding value. Such fodder, witli 
bi'ight. nutritious leaves and small palatable ears that are easily mas- 
ticated, lias a value not as yet appreciated by most stockmen. Over- 
looking the splendid qualities of corn as a forage j^lant, too many 
farmers have become accustomed to growing this giant grass for the 
grain it yields, using the stover as a straw to be fed or wasted as acci- 
dent determines. 

As it is low in protein, corn fodder gives the best results when 
legume hay forms part of the roughage, such combination giving 
excellent results with dairy cows, beef cattle, and sheep. Corn fodder 
is also an economical substitute for timothy hay with idle horses, 
brood mares, and growing colts. Com fodder and stover should be 
placed in large, well-made shocks, to reduce the losses by weathering. 
Since the stalks stand almost vertical in the shocks, as the leaves wilt 
there is ample room for the upward passage of air currents, wliicli 
rapidly dry the interior and check molds and fermentations. When 
shock corn is pronounced "dry" by the farmer, it usually carries 
more water and consequently less dry matter than hay, a fact wiiieh 
should not be overlooked when feeding this forage. Care must be 
taken tlmt corn fodder or stover is well-cured l)efore it is stacked, and 
especially before it is stored in the mow, for musty, moldy forage is 
not only unpalatable but even dangerous. In districts of the South 
where it is exceedingl}- difficult to cure corn forage, the silo is par- 
ticularly useful. 

Shock corn. — Rather than husking corn and feeding the grain and 
stover separately, it is often more profitable to feed shock corn, the 
animals doing their own husking. This is especially true for animals 
which need only a small grain allowance, such as cattle being carried 
thru the winter and idle horses. Shock corn may also be successfully 
fed to fattening cattle and sheep, particularly at the beginning of 
the fattening period, and to a less extent to dairy cows. It is true 
that when fed unhusked some com pass^es thru the animal unbroken, 
but feeding trials show that, despite such waste, there is often little or 
no profit in husking the ear and reducing it to meal. A little study 



COKN AND TilK SORGHUMS V()\l FOUACiK Ki-) 

will determine the amount of grain the shocks carry, so that the fet'dcr 
can properly adjust the proportion of grain to roughage by supplyhi<;' 
either ear corn or corn stover, as the animals may require. 

Corn stover. — The forage which remains after removing the ears 
from shock corn has a higher feeding value than is usually believed. 
Stover produced in the nortliern portion of the corn belt is superior in 
nutriment and palatability to that grown in the South. As soon as 
fairly well cured, stover should be placed under cover or stacked, 
rather than left to waste away in the field. When fed with alfalfa or 
clover hay, good corn stover may often profitably form half the 
roughage allowance for fattening cattle or sheep. For stock cattle 
and breeding cows it may be utilized to even a larger extent, and it is 
also satisfactory for breeding ewes. While corn stover alone will not 
quite maintain the weight of growing steers during the winter, stover 
and legume hay with no grain will make fair gains. This cheap feed 
is also a satisfactory roughage for horses doing but little work. i\lost 
of the roughage of dairy cows should be more palatable and nutri- 
tious in character, but corn stover may often be economically fed even 
to them. 

Shredding- or cutting stover or fodder. — When shock corn is 
husked by machinery, the stover is usually cut or shredded at the same 
operation. Corn fodder is also often passed thru a feed cutter before 
feeding. This finer material is no more digestible than the uncut 
forage. However, cutting or shredding usually reduces the -waste, 
as it induces the cattle to eat a greater part of the stalks, unless they 
are coarse and wood^^ The cut or shredded forage is also easier to 
liandle, and the waste is in better shape for bedding. 

Corn for soilage. — Corn ranks high as a soiling crop on account of 
its palatability, tlie high yield of nutrients, and the fact that it reuuiins 
in good condition for feeding for a much longer period than many 
other crops grown for soilage. On farms lacking summer silage, feed- 
ing corn forage in the green stage as soilage should become general, 
for during the late summer and early fall pastures are often too 
scanty to enable animals to do their best. In the case of dairy cows 
such a shortage of feed will cause a decrease in milk flow, which often 
cannot be recovered by subsequent liberal feeding. An acre of ripen- 
ing corn fed in early fall may return twice as much profit as if it were 
held over until winter. For early feeding sweet corn may often be 
advantageously used. 

II. The Sorghums 

In the dry-farming districts, from Nebraska to Texas and Arizona, 
the sorghums, both the saccharine sorghos and the non-saccharine 



164 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



grain sorghums, are of jii'oat and increasing importance as forage 
crops, because they are far more drought resistant than corn and tlie 
leaves remain green late in autunui. The sorghums, mainly the 
sorghos, are valuable in the southern states for hay, soilage, and silage, 
and are also grown in the northern states, chiefl}^ for soilage. 

Three tons of air-dry fodder is a good and 6 tons a large return from 
the sorghums, while maxiunim yields may reach 10 tons of dry fodder 




'#*>!'; all p*u\ i 














Fig. 46. — A Field op Kafir in tpie Texas Panhandle 

Bocause of llioir rcsiistaiu-o to di'oimlit. tlic fiiaiii sorplinms and the sorghos arp 
of fii'eat importance as forage crops in tlie aomi-arid districts. ( From The 
Huiithvrst Trail, Roclc Island Lines.) 

or 40 tons of green material.^ Under Kansas conditions the sorghums 
produce one-third to one-half more forage per acre than corn.* 

Sorghum fodder and stover. — Thruout regions of scanty rainfall 
the sorghums are most commonly grown in drilled rows of sufficient 
width to allow cultivation, by which the moisture is conserved and 
larger yields obtained. When grown in drills, not too thickly, much 
seed is produced and the stalks are somewhat coarse. Sorghum forage 
is more palatable when cut before full maturity, but the seed should 
be allowed to roach llie early dough stage, for if cut earlier the plants 



■■■ Piper, Forai^v IManls, ]>. 200. 



4 Kced, Kan. Cir. 28. 



CUKN AND THE SORGHUMS FOR FOKA(JK 105 

are watery and contain little nutriment. The crop is cured in sliocks, 
tlie same as Indian corn, but in the case of the juicy-stennned sorghos, 
which cure with difficulty, the shocks should be small. In sections 
with ample rainfall the seed is often broadcasted, and the fine-stemmed 
plants cut and cured the same as the meadow grasses. In the South 
where the rainfall is ample and on irrigated lands 2 to 3 cuttings of 
sorghum may be secured in the season, if the crop is cut before it 
matures ; in the dry-farming districts it is usually cut but once. 

The various types of grain sorghums have been described in Chap- 
ter X. The kafirs excel in yield and value of forage, for tliej^ are 
leafy and the stems are more succulent than those of milo, feterita, or 
kaoliang. Kafir fodder and stover compare favorably in composition 
and feeding value with that from corn. Feterita ranks next to kafir 
for forage, while milo, kaoliang, and shallu are less leafy and have 
more pithy stems. The dwarf types of the grain sorghums are often 
liarvested with a grain header, and stock grazed on the standing 
stalks. 

The sorghos, with their juicy stalks rich in sugar, are grown chiefly 
for forage. Early varieties, such as Amber cane, ripen earlier than 
kafir or milo, and may be grown wherever corn will mature. The 
palatable leaves, sweet stalks, and freedom from dust make sorgho 
forage a desirable roughage for stock, especially horses. 

The sorghums for grazing, soilage, and silage. — Especially in the 
southern states, the sorghums, mainly the sorghos, are widely used as 
summer pasture for horses, cattle, and swine, since they are available 
at a time when other crops are exhausted or immature. Owing to the 
danger from prussic acid poisoning, extreme care must be taken in 
pasturing second growth or stunted sorghums. By feeding the green 
crop as soilage it is utilized more completely than when pastured. 
Tho sorghum may be cut at any time after it reaches a height of 
2 to 3 feet, a greater yield of nutrients will be secured when it is 
allowed to head. The early varieties of sorghos are admirable soiling 
crops for the northern states. 

The sorghums formerly had the reputation of producing nuich 
sourer silage than corn. However, numerous experiments lui\'e nf)W 
shown that when sufficiently matured both the sorghos and the grain 
sorghums make excellent silage. To determine when cane or kafir is 
ready to ensile twist a stalk with the hands. AVhen it is so mature 
that only a little juice will run out the proper stage has been reached.'"' 
As with corn, it is preferable to let the crop of cane or kafir stand till 
after frost, rather than ensile when too green. The bagasse or waste 
of the sorghum syrup factories should not be wasted, but may be 

5 Rued, Kan. Cir, 28. 



166 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

satisfaetoi'ily ensiled, as may the leaves removed before running tlie 
stalks thru the mill. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Define corn fodder, shock corn, and corn stover. 

2. What is tlie effect of thiclcness of planting corn on the yield of ears, stover, 
and total nutrients? 

3. What part of the digestible crude protein, total digestible nutrients, and 
net energy of a corn crop grown for grain is in the stover? 

4. Discuss corn as a silage crop and compare corn silage with corn fodder. 

ry. How should the corn crop be handled for silage so as to secure the best 
returns? 

6. How is silage made from dry corn fodder? 

7. Discuss the value of dry corn fodder and state how it should be preserved. 

5. I'T^nder what conditions should corn be fed for soilage? 

D. Discuss the value of forage from kafir, feterita, milo, and sorgho. 
1(1 Wliat is the value of the sorghums for grazing, soilage and silage? 



CHAPTER XIII 

THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW— HAY-MAKING 

I. The Smaller Grasses 

Unlike the great grain-bearing grasses — corn, wheat, rye, barley, 
oats, rice, and the sorghums, which are all annuals — the smaller 
grasses are nearly all perennials. Hence they thrive without cultiva- 
tion, producing roughage of good quality with little expense for labor. 
For building up the soil by adding humus and binding it together the 
smaller grasses are also of great importance. In summertime in 
regions where the smaller grasses flourish the animals of the farm 
largely feed themselves, and meat, milk, and wool are produced at the 
minimum expense. 

The smnller grasses are divided into two classes — the sod-formers 
and the i:on-sod-formers. The sod-formers, which spread by creeping 
rootstalks, either above or below ground, making a smooth turf, include 
our mjst valuable pasture and lawn grasses, such as Kentucky blue- 
grass and Bermuda grass. The non-sod-formers, such as orchard 
grass, grow in tufts or bunches and increase only by seed or stooling, 
except in the case of a few, such as timothj^ which also increase to 
some extent by forming new bulbs at the base of the stems. 

Nutrients in grasses at different stages. — Few stockmen realize the 
great difference in composition between young, immature grass and 
the same grass as it is usually cut for hay. The Kentuckj^ Station 
found that bluegrass, rye, wheat, and oats cut when only 5 to 8 inches 
high contained as high a percentage of protein as green alfalfa or 
clover. This shows that immature grasses, such as are gathered 1)y 
grazing animals, are ])rotein-rich feeds and explains the favorable 
results secured by feeding only corn, a highly carbonaceous feed, to 
fattening animals at pasture. On the other hand, when cut for hay, 
the smaller grasses are relatively low in protein compared with carbo- 
hydrates and fat, and hence hay from the grasses should alwa.ys be 
fed with feeds rich in protein. Tho immature grass is richer in pro- 
tein, a larger yield of dry matter and a larger total amount of protein 
is secured if the grass is not cut until nearly mature. Thus, when 
grass is cut for hay at the usual stage, jnore feed is usually secured 
pen' acre than if the same lield were grazed by stock. 

167 



IGS 



FEP^DS AND FEEDLNG, ABIJIDGHD 



Bluegrass. — Keiitueky bluegrass, or June grass, easily ranks first 
fur lawn and pasture in the northeastern United States. By its 
persistence it often even drives out other grasses and clovers from the 
meadows and pastures. The fact that bluegrass is one of the richest 
of grasses in digestible protein helps explain the fondness for it shown 
In' stock. Differing from most grasses of the humid regions, mature 
dried bluegrass is (juite readily grazed by animals, thus resembling 
some of the grasses of the western ranges. 

With the coming of spring, bluegrass pushes forward so vigorously 




Fig. 47. — Beef Cattle Fattening on Bluegrass Pasture 

In tlie northeastern United States, Kentucky bluegrass is l>y far tlie most im- 
portant pasture grass. 



that early in ^lay the fields bear a thick, nutritious carpet of green. 
With seed bearing, the plant's energies become exhausted, and blue- 
grass enters a period of rest Avhich lasts several Aveeks, and if a mid- 
summer drought occurs the plants turn brown and appear to be dying. 
However, they quickly revive with the coming of the fall rains, and 
each plant is once more busy gathering nourishment for the coming 
season's seed bearing. The observant stockman soon learns the folly 
of relying on bluegi-ass ])asture for a steady and uniform feed su])ply 
for his cattle thruout the season. Accordingly, he understocks the 
pasture in spring so that the excess of herbage dtiring May and June 



THE SMALLER GRASSES— STKAW 109 

may remain to be drawn upon during the mid-sunniier dormant period, 
(;r he fully stocks it and makes up the later shortage by supplying 
silage or soilage. Because of its low, carpet-like growth, bluegrass is 
primarily a pasture, rather than a hay grass. 

Timothy. — The acreage of timothy in the United States nearly 
equals that of all other cultivated hay plants combined, including 
clover and alfalfa. This cool-weather grass is of especial importance 
in the northeastern states, where it furnishes probably three-fourths 
of all hay marketed in the cities. The popularity of timothy is due 
to the following points : The seed is cheap and generally of good 
(juality. A field of timothy is quickly established and usually holds 
well. The grass seldom lodges, may be harvested over a longer period 
than most grasses, and is easily cured into bright, clean hay which is 
({uite free from dust and can be handled with little waste. 

For horses timothy hay is the standard roughage, being preferred 
especially by city buyers. However, mixed clover and timolh^y hay, 
or even legume hay alone, if of good quality, may be successfully used 
in place of timothy. For dairy and beef cattle and for sheep timothy 
is greatly inferior to hay from the legumes, for timothy is low in |)ro- 
lein and is also not so well-liked by these animals as is clover or alfalfa. 
.Moreover, the yield of timothy is not large, for it produces but little 
aftermath. Therefore, on most farms where timothy is now exten- 
sively grown, greater use should be made of the legumes, which not 
only yield more hay, but at the same time increase the fertility of the 
land. Red or alsike clover should always be sown with timothj^ except 
when the hay is to be grown for sale and the demand is for pure 
timothy, for the combination furnishes more and superior hay, even 
for horses. Grown together, the ha^^ of the first season will consist 
largely of clover. With the close of the second season most of the 
clover disappears and the decaying clover roots nourish the timothy 
which remains, so that a much larger yield of that grass is obtained. 
Fodder corn and hay from the cereals — oats, wheat, or barley — are 
economical substitutes for timothy hay in many cases. 

When to cut timothy. — In trials during 3 seasons at the IMissouri 
Station ^ cutting timothy when the seed had just formed gave the 
largest yield of dry matter, closely followed by cutting when the seed 
was in the dough. However, when the hay was cut later than full 
bloom it was less digestible, and therefore the yield of digestible nu- 
trients was greatest when the crop was cut at full bloom. After this 
the yield of both digestible protein and carboh.ydrates fell off mark- 
edly. This decrease in total digestible nutrients as the hay matures, 
which is opposite to what occurs in the corn crop, is due to the partial 

I Waters and Scliwi'it/AT, Prof. Soi'. Prom. Ao;r. 8ci., 1!)10, pp. 71-08. 



170 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



loss of the lower leaves as tlie jilants ripen, to leaching by rain, and 
to the storage of nutrients in the bulbs at the base of the stems. In 
maturing corn the nutrients are stored in the kernels, which are easily 
masticated and highh^ digestible. In the smaller grasses, tlio a similar 
storage occurs in the seeds, they are so small and have such hard seed 
coats that they escape mastication and their nutrients are largely lost. 
Based on the yield of digestible nutrients alone, full bloom appears 
the best time to cut timothy for hay, but other factors must be con- 
sidered. Such immature grass is difficult to cure, the weather early in 




Fig. 48. — Cutting a Fine Field of Timothy 

On most farms where timothy is now extensively grown, greater use should 
be made of the legumes, which not only yield more hay, but also increase the 
fertility of the land. 

the season is usually more unsettled, and the ground cooler. Also, 
haying must often be delayed in the corn belt until the corn has been 
cultivated. In general, timothy should be cut early for dairy cows, 
young stock, and sheep, since these animals do not relish hay tliat is 
woody and lacks aroma, as does most late-cut hay. For b.orses and 
fattening cattle late cutting is favored, since these animals get much 
of their nourishment from concentrates, and the hay tiiey eat serves 
more as "rilling." In any event, cutting should not be delayed until 
the gi-ass becomes tough and woody and the seeds siuitter. 

Red top. — This grass is ])robably suilcil to a wider I'ange of climatic 
and soil conditions than any other cultivated grass. A couple of years 



THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW 171 

after seeding it forms a close, well-knit, smooth sod, almost as dense as 
bliiegrass turf. There is no better grass for marshy and damp lands, 
and at the same time it will withstand considerable drought. It 
endures on poor uplands and on soils too acid for most other grasses. 
Tho not so well liked as bluegrass, red top gives good pasture and 
yields a fine-stemmed hay, rated somewhat below timothy in value. 

Orchard grass. — Tho it does M-ell in full sunlight, this grass thrives 
better than most others in partial shade. It endures hot weather 
better than timothy and is well suited to the southern border of the 
timothy belt. As it starts early in the spring, endures drought well, 
and continues growth late in the fall, it furnishes valuable pasturage, 
tho stock prefer bluegrass. While late-cut orchard grass makes harsh, 
woody hay, that cut in early bloom is equal to the best of the hay 
grasses. Orchard grass grows in tufts, forming an uneven sod, and 
hence should be sown with clovers or other grasses, both for hay and 
pasture. Ripening two weeks before timothy, it fits in well with red 
clover. 

Brome grass. — In that i^art of the great plains region stretching 
from Soutli Dakota to Saskatchewan, brome is the most important 
cultivated grass. It furnishes good crops of hay, fully equal to 
timothy in feeding value, for three or four years after seeding, by 
wliich time it usually becomes sod bound and should be renewed by 
harrowing or shallow plowing. Brome is one of the most palatable of 
pasture grasses and endures heavy grazing. Tho the most drought- 
resistant of the cultivated grasses, brome is usually less productive 
than the native prairie grasses in the drier parts of the dry-farming 
belt. 

The millets. — The millets are rapid growing hot-weather annuals of 
many races and varieties. Of these, the foxtail millets are the tj'pe 
most grown for forage in the United States. In this group are com- 
mon millet, the earliest and most drought-resistant : the less drought- 
resistant, shorter stemmed Hungarian millet, the seeds of which are 
mostly purplish ; and German millet, late maturing and with nodding 
heads, which yields more hay, but not of quite such good quality. 
The foxtail millets are especially valuable as hay crops on dry-farms 
in the northern plains region. In the more humid regions they arc 
grown chiefly as catch crops. JMillet should be seeded thickly for hay 
and should be cut as soon as the blossoms appear. Such hay is useful 
for cattle and sheep feeding, tho usually less palatable and inferior in 
feeding value to timothy hay or even bright, fine corn or sorghum 
fodder. Siiu-e millet hay is sometimes injurious to horses, it should be 
fed sparingly. 

Japanese harHjjard millet, a close relative of the common barnyard 
grass, has often been advertised as "billion dollar grass." Tlio yiekl- 



172 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABKIDGED 

mg large crops of coarse forage under favorable conditions, it is 
usually inferior to the foxtail millets for hay, and to corn for soilage. 
The hroom-corn millets, previously described, are grown chiefly for 
seed production, as the yield of forage is low and the stems woody. 
Pearl millet, also called pencillaria or cat-tail millet, is adapted to the 
same conditions as the sorghums, which have proven more valuable 
and have largely displaced it in both the semi-arid regions and the 
South. As a soiling crop this tall growing grass has value in the 
southern states, yielding three or more cuttings in a season. It should 
be cut when 3 to 4 feet high, before the stems become hard. 

Teosinte, a giant millet resembling sorghum, requires a rich, moist 
soil and is too tropical to have value north of the southern portion of 
the Gulf states. The culture of this grass is decreasing in the United 
States, because on moderately fertile soils it yields less than sorghum, 
and on rich land less than Japanese cane. 

Cereal grains for forage. — All the small grains are suitable for hay, 
soilage, and pasturage. Over four million acres of small grains were 
cut for hay in 1909, half of this area being in the Pacific coast states. 
More than 40 per ct. of the hay grown in the southeastern coast states 
is from the small grains. Cereals should l)e cut for hay when the 
grains are in the early milk stage, and the bearded grains before the 
awns harden. 

In the North fall-sown rye or Avheat furnishes excellent late fall and 
early spring pasture and soilage, while spring-sown oats or barley 
provide green forage in early summer. Barley, being more rust resist- 
ant, is the best cereal grass for late summer seeding. In the South 
fall-sown grains may be pastured moderately thru the winter and will 
still yield considerable hay or grain. Green rye gives a bad flavor to 
milk unless the cows are pastured on it for but two or three hours 
after milking. A field sown to rye, wheat, oats, or barley for tem- 
porary pasture may be changed to a permanent one by sowing clover 
and grass seed thereon early in spring. The grass and clover plants 
will then begin growth under shelter of the young grain. Stock may 
graze on the cereal plants regardless of the young grasses and clovers 
but should be kept off the fields after rains. As the cereal plants 
gradually die, the grasses and clovers spread until they form a dense, 
permanent sod. 

If ensiled when the kernels are just past the milk stage or slightly 
earlier, the cereals make fair to good silage. The crop should be run 
thru a silage cutter and unusual care taken in tramping down the 
mass to force the air out of the hollow stems. 

Bermuda grass. — This low-growing, creeping grass is to the cotton 
belt what bluegrass and timothy combined are to the northeastern 



THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW 



173 



states. Bermuda forms a douse sod and serves best when closely 
grazed, as otherwise it becomes tough and wiry. It drives out most 
other grasses, but lespedeza or white clover will flourish in spots and 
improve the pasture. It furnishes pasturage from April to October 
and in winter, when it is dormant, the sod may be seeded with bur 
clover, hairy vetch, or Italian r3'e grass. Tho primarily a pasture 
plant, on rich soil Bermuda yields from three to four tons per acre 
of hay equal to timothy in value, tho the average is not over one ton. 
Johnson grass. — In the South this plant is the worst weed of the 



- 












<^-' . .■*ij" , ' 


9Ht'< 










MW 








ji ry. T^f^tS^^BKSfK^SmK^V^ 




m 


1 










^W^ 


^m. 


Krf'MJMtffd^ 






b^Afebfi. -^ vJ 


>.LA.iSjyr| 



Fig. 49. — Sudan Grass — A New Crop of Much Promise 

Tliis close relative of the sorglmms is jiiving excellent results as a hay crop 
in the semi-arid districts and may prove superior to tlie millets as a catch crop 
in the northern states. (From U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 

cotton planter and yet the best meadow grass for many sections. Its 
vigorous creeping rootstalks make it difficult to eradicate when once 
established and it is therefore not usually sown on clean fields. From 
two to three tons per acre is the average yield of Johnson grass cut for 
hay, but 6 tons per acre has been reported. It should be cut before 
maturity. Tho too coarse for pasture, Johnson grass may be cut once 
a month during the summer for soilage. 

Sudan grass. — This close relative of the sorghums was introduced 
into this country by the United States Department of Agriculture 



174 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABKIDCJED 

in 1909. It closely resembles Johnson grass, but fortunately has no 
creeping rootstalks, and thus cannot become a pest. Tho a tall, rank- 
growing grass, the stems are comparatively slender, seldom being 
larger than a lead pencil. It yields hay similar to timothy in com- 
position and somewhat -superior to millet in feeding value. It gives 
one cutting in the northern states and two or more in the South. 
Being drought resistant and adapted to the same conditions as the 
sorghums, it is an important forage crop for the western portion of 
the plains region. As it is a heat loving plant, Sudan grass does not 
flourish at high altitudes or in the extreme North. Neither does it 
thrive along the humid Gulf coast. Yields of 1.25 to 5 tons of hay 
per acre have been secured in the great plains district, even with 
unusually severe drought, and under irrigation in the Soutliwest 
yields of 8 to nearly 10 tons have been obtained. Sudan grass is also 
a valuable soilage crop. 

Japanese cane ; sugar cane. — Because of its heavy yields, Japanese 
cane, a slender stemmed variet,y of the common sugar cane, is one of 
the cheapest forage crops that can be grown in the Gulf states, and 
possibly in southern California. In Florida it furnishes good pasture 
for cattle and hogs from November to March, but is killed by grazing 
after growth starts in the spring. The crop may be cured as dry 
fodder and makes good silage. Yields of 12 to 25 tons of green forage 
per acre are not unusual. 

The tops and leaves of common sugar cane, removed on harvesting 
the cane, make satisfactory forage for live stock, and may be ensiled. 
It is a wasteful practice not to utilize this by-product by feeding to 
stock. 

Wild and marsh grasses. — Along parts of the Atlantic coast are 
extensive salt marshes, the best of which are cut for hay at low tide,:' 
yielding 0.5 to 1 ton per acre. Such hay is from 10 to 18 per ct. lessl 
valuable than average mixed hay from the cultivated grasses for dairy 
cows. In all humid regions of the country are fresh w^ater marshes, 
some of whieh are covered with the more nutritioua true grasses, wiiile 
in others the rushes and sedges predominate. Such marsh hay as blue 
joint, cut before maturity, nearly equals timothy in value. The 
prairies of the Great Plains and the grazing ranges of the AVest sup- 
port numerous native grasses that furnish excellent pasturage and 
hay equal to timothy. 

Mixed grasses. — No matter how valuable a single variety of grass 
may be, it should never be grown alone in permanent meadows and 
pastures, but always in combination with other grasses and the clovers. 
In the North an excellent combination is timothy, red top, and orchard 



THE SMALLER GRASSES— ST U AW 175 

grass, with aLsike and medium red clover. The variety and proportion 
of grasses and clovers to be included in any mixture depend on climatic 
and soil conditions. Before sowing, one should consult the experi- 
ment station of his state, as well as observe what varieties of grasses 
and clovers thrive best in his particular locality. 

The abuse of pasturage. — Too many stockmen rely entirely upon 
pastures for the maintenance of their cattle during half the year, not 
realizing that if drought prevails during the summer months the ani- 
mals may sutt'er from hunger. In addition, there is the heat of "dog 
days" and the ever-present annoyance of blood-sucking flies. Stock- 
men who turn their cattle to pasture in spring, allowing them to forage 
as best they can until Avinter, are guilty of barbarism as truly as were 
the early Britons, who forced their stock to live on natural herbage 
not only in summer but in winter as well. If the animals died from 
starvation it was "an act of God." The stockman of today amplj^ pro- 
Tides for winter's rigor, but he can never expect his flocks and herds 
to yield their best returns unless he also makes ample provision against 
the possibility of drought-ruined pastures in summer. 

In America we have not begun to use our pastures as efficiently as 
is done in Europe, where stock is still economically grazed on land 
worth several hundred dollars an acre. B}^ proper fertilization, 
reseeding, and keeping down of brush and weeds, the productivity of 
pastures may be greatly increased. In humid regions unless grasses 
are pastured so closely as to be killed out thru tramping, heavy graz- 
ing is often better than pasturing too lightly, for weeds are then kept 
from encroaching on the grasses. 

Because of over-stocking and consequent over-grazing under the 
system of free grazing, the carrying capacit}^ of many of the western 
ranges has been seriously reduced. The day of the "all-year-round" 
open range is almost past, and in its place has come a system under 
which, by the use of supplemental feed for periods of summer drought 
and winter storm, the natural forage is used much more wisely than 
before. With ranges thus handled, the enormous losses of cattle and 
sheep from starvation, which were all too common in the old range 
days, are prevented. Fencing or otherwise restricting the range, 
developing convenient water supplies, protecting the range during 
periods of seed ripening and germination, and preventing soil erosion, 
will greatly increase the amount of feed produced. In one instance a 
range of 25 square miles, 6 years after fencing, not only carried twice 
as many cattle as before but also kept them in much better condition. - 

sThoniber and Griffith, Ariz. Bui 65. 



176 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

II. Straw and Chaff 

As plants mature, the iiutrioiils whifli have been built up in the 
green portions are in large part transferred and stored in the ripening 
seed, thus largely exhausting the stems and leaves of easily digested 
nutrients and leaving in them the resistant wood}- fiber, or cellulose. 
All straws are, tlierefore, worth much less than the same plants cut for 
hay before maturity. The feeding value of each class of straw may 
differ widely, depending on the stage at which the crop was cut, the 
care with which it was cured, and the amount of the more nutritious 
grasses and weeds present. 

Straw and chaff of the cereals. — Being low in protein, nitrogen- 
free extract, and fat, and high in fiber, straw furnishes less digestible 
nutrients and much less net energy than good hay. Accordingly, it 
should not form any large part of the roughage for animals at hard 
work, fattening rapidly, or giving a large flow of milk. On the other 
hand, a considerable portion of the roughage for idle horses and ani- 
mals being carried over winter without gaining materially in weight 
may consist of straw. When much straw is fed, the additional protein 
needed should be supplied in other feeds. Growing steers, wintered 
on good straw as the only roughage, witli 1 or 2 lbs. of cottonseed meal 
per head daily, will more than maintain their weight. A small amount 
of straw satisfies the desire for dry roughage of steers fattening on 
corn silage, corn, and cottonseed meal just as well as will clover hay. 

In Canada and Europe puli)ed roots and meal are often mixed with 
cut or eluiffed oat straw, and the moist uuiss allowed to soften. It is 
then readily consumed by cattle and sheep. In many districts of 
Europe horses are fed cut straw mixed with their concentrate allow- 
ance, small amounts being thus utilized even for horses at hard work. 

Oat straw with its soft, pliable stems is the most nutritious, followed 
bj^ barley straw. Wheat straw, being coarse and stiff', is not so readily 
eaten, and rye straw, harsh and woody, had better be used for bedding. 
The chaff of wheat and oats contains more crude protein than does the 
straw, and is a useful roughage when not loaded with dust, rust, or 
mold. 

Straw from legumes and other plants. — Straiv from the legumes 
contains more crude protein and less fiber than that from the cereals, 
and is more digestible. Field pea stroir, with its fine stems and often 
carrying some seed, has a higher value than the coarser straw from 
field beans or soybeans, tho even these are better than oat straw if 
well cured. Clover straw may be fed to cattle or sheep, but is too 
dusty for horses. 

While not especially desirable, flax slrnir may be fed in the absence 



THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW 377 

of better roughao-e. The statement that tlie stringy fiber of fiax forms 
indigestible balls in the stoiuaehs of farm animals is unwari'anted, 
since it is digested the same as other (ibi'ous matter. Grecn-eolored 
straw from immature flax plants should be fed with extreme caution, 
as it may contain enough prussic acid to be poisonous. Buckivheaf 
straw has little value, and may cause digestive disturbances if fed in 
large amount. Properly cured iice straw is excellent for stock. 

III. Hay-I\Iaking 

Converting green forage into haj" was probabl}' the first step in 
changing the wandering herdsman into the farmer-stockman. To-day 
over seventy million tons of hay are produced annually in the United 
States, and thruout the temperate zone hay is the common roughage 
for all the larger animals of the farm. 

Nutritive value of dried grass. — Trials have shown that grass dried 
under perfect conditions has as high nutritive value as when fed in 
the fresh state. However, in actual haymaking more or less of the 
nutrients are always lost, due to loss of leaves and exposure to sun- 
light, dew, and rain. INleadow hay exposed to prolonged rain may lose 
as much as 18 per ct. of the total dry matter, and legume hay still more. 
In a trial at the Colorado Station '' alfalfa hay exposed to 3 rains, 
aggregating 1.8 inches, lost 31.7 per ct. of the total dry matter. The 
actual damage was even greater than this, for, while practically all of 
the fiber remained, 60 per ct. of the crude ])rotein, 41 per ct. of the 
nitrogen-free extract, and 33 per ct. of the fat was lost. 

Hay-making. — The ends sought in making hay are to reduce the 
water content to about 15 per ct., so that the hay will keep when placed 
in the stack or mow, and yet to secure bright green color, good aroma, 
and freedom from dust, and to retain the leaves and other finer parts, 
which, especially with legumes, easily fall off. During the process 
fermentations produced by enzymes occur, which develop a charac- 
teristic aroma. 

A good but rather expensive method of securing ])rime hay is to mow 
the grass as soon as the dew is off, allow it to lie in the swath until dry 
on the surface, then turn by hand or tedder, or rake into loose wind- 
rows. Before the dew falls make into cocks, and, if dry enough so 
that it will not mold, allow it to remain in the cock till it has passed 
thru the "sweat." With legumes it is well to protect the cocks from 
rain by hay caps. After the sweat, open the cocks in large flakes. 
The hay will then soon dry out enough to be hauled to the barn or 
stack. Where the grass is green or damp when cocked, it may be 

3 Tl.^:i(l.len. Cnl... i:iil. m. 



178 FKEDS AND l'M<:i>:i)IXa, ABiaiKJKD 

necessary to open the cocks the next morning to avoid molding", and 
then recock the hay toward niglit, ii not yet dry eiiougli to store. 

By this sj'stem the curing grass is exposed but little to the bleaching 
action of the sun and dew, and there is no marked loss of aroma, 
which, tho unweighable, has real value in rendering hay palatable. 
Before the partly dried plants are piled into cocks, the leaves will 
have dried out more than the stems. As the leaves and stems remain 
alive for some time after the grass has been cut, if the material is 
cocked before the leaves are entirely dried out and therel)y killed, they 
will continue to draw water from the stems. Partially curing in the 
cock is especially important with the legumes, which usually have 
thick, succulent stems that dry slowly, while the leaves dry rapidly, 
and become brittle and shatter badly. Partially cured grass cocked 
in the afternoon entraps much warm air, which helps to continue the 
giving ott' of moisture during the night. 

Hay put into the barn when so dry that it wall not pack well, is not 
in first class condition. It should be mowed aw^ay with just that 
amount of moisture which allows it to settle compactly when trodden 
down. Salt and lime scattered over damp hay Avhen put into the mow 
tend to prevent fermentation and check the growth of molds. Damp 
hay may also be improved by placing it in alternate layers with dry 
straw\ which absorbs moisture as well as aroma from the hay, so that 
cattle the more readily eat both straw and hay. New-made hay, which 
is laxative and may cause colic in horses, should not be fed until the 
sweat in the mow is over and it has cooled off. 

Making hay on a large scale. — Where large acreages of hay are 
made, it is often unjn'oHtable to cure the crop in cocks, owing to the 
extra labor, even tho better hay is secured. Frecjuently the crop is 
mown in the morning and by frequent tedding and turning it is 
housed before the dew falls at night. In favorable weather even clover 
and alfalfa, when dry on the surface of the swath, are often raked 
directly into small windrows by a side-del iver.y or other rake, wathout 
previous tedding. After curing here for a few hours, the hay is loaded 
from the swath by the hay loader, or in the West is hauled to the 
stack with a sweep rake. 

Another method is to cut the crop late in the afternoon so that the 
dew will not materially affect the plants during tiie night, because they 
are but little wilted. Even should rain come it will cause far less 
injury than if the plants were partially cured. The following day, 
by aid of tedder or rake the drying is hastened and the hay placed 
under cover or stacked before night. 

When these methods are followed with the legumes, it is impossible 
to avoid much loss of the leaves, by far the most valuable part of the 



THE SMAl.LER GRASSES— STRAW 171) 

plant, for when curing- in the swath or windrow the leaves become dry 
and brittle long before the stems are dry enough to allow the hay to be 
stored. When clover or alfalfa hay is carelessly made and allowed to 
become too dry most of the leaves may be lost, carrying a large part of 
the feeding value of the crop. To avoid this the wilted material 
should be raked into Avindrows before it has cured too much in the 
swath. 

Measurement and shrinkage. — In computing the amount of hay in 
a mow, it is commonly assumed that after settling 420 cubic feet of 
timothy or 500 of clover hay equals 1 ton. To find the amount of hay 
in a stack, the following rule ma}' be used : ^ 

Multiply the width of the stack in feet by the "over" (i.e., the distance from 
the base on one side of the stack over the stack and to the base on the other 
side), divide the product by 4, and multiply the quotient by the length. Tliis 
gives the contents of the stack in cubic feet. To find the number of tons for 
hay that has stood for less than 30 days, divide by 512; for 30 to GO days, by 
422; over 60 days, by 380. 

Hay stored in the mow will shrink in weight, due to drying out, and 
also to fermentations taking place during the sweating process, in 
which nutrients are broken down into carbon dioxid and water. The 
shrinkage will vary, depending on the water content of the hay when 
placed in the mow, and may reach 20 per ct. or over. When hay is 
stacked, the shrinkage is greater, since the outside of the stack is 
exposed to the weather. A stack 12 feet in diameter has about one- 
third of its contents in the surface foot. 

QUESTIONS 

1. When does grass contain tlie largest percentage of protein and at what 
stage does it yield the most dry matter and total protein? 

2. What are the merits of Kentucky bluegrass? 

3. Why is timothy the great hay grass of this country and what are its bad 
points? When should it be cut for hay? 

4. Discuss the value of red top, orchard grass, brome grass, and the millets. 

5. Wliat is the importance of the cereal grains for forage? 

C. Name and discuss the value of four grasses adapted to the South. 

7. What mixtures are most successful in your own locality for pasture and 
permanent meadow? 

8. Discuss the abuse of pasturage. 

0. How may straw be used in stock feeding? Compare the value of the dif- 
ferent kinds of straw. 

10. Describe the method followed to secure the best hay. How is hay made 
on a large scale? 

4 Barnes, Western Gra/.iug Grounds, p. 139. 



CHAPTER XIV 

LEGUMES FOR FORAGE 

The cereal grains, forage from corn and the sorghums, and hay 
from the smaller grasses are all low in protein compared with carbo- 
hydrates and fat. Therefore, when only these crops are raised, the 
stockman must purchase large amounts of expensive protein-rich con- 
centrates to provide balanced rations for his stock. Fortunately, the 
great group of legumes furnish bounteous crops of protein-rich, palat- 
able roughage that greatly reduces the need for purchased concen- 
trates. Indeed, for many classes of animals merely legume hay and 
the farm-grown grains furnish a most satisfactory and well-balanced 
ration. The high feeding value of the legumes is due not only to their 
richness in protein, but also to the abundance of lime they contain. 
Tho this is required in large amount by growing animals and those 
which are pregnant or giving milk, it is low in the cereal grains and 
present in only fair amount in forage from corn and the other grasses. 
Equally important is the fact that the legumes are able to increase the 
supply in the soil of nitrogen, the most expensive plant food. Their 
abundant and systematic growth on every farm is thus necessary for 
the economical maintenance of soil fertility. Due to these excellencies, 
the legumes are the best crop allies of the stockman in reducing his 
bills both for purchased feed and for commercial fertilizers. 

In considering the legumes it must be kept in mind that Ihey flourisk 
and build uj) the nitrogen content of the soil only when the proper 
nodule-forming bacteria are present. Where these nitrogen-fixing 
bacteria are lacking in the soil, it is necessar,y that it be inoculated by 
some means. 

I. Alfalfa 

Importance of alfalfa. — Tho alfalfa is especially adapted to the 
semi-arid i)lains and the irrigated districts of the West, it can be 
])rofitably grown in most districts of the United States where the soil 
is deep, well-drained, and rich in lime. The acreage of alfalfa in this 
country doubled from 189!) to 190!), and increa.sed over eight-fold in 
the states east of the Mississippi. The reason for this surprising 
advance is revealed in the following table, which shows the average 
yield per acre in 1909 thruoiit the United States of four of our most 
important erops. 

mo 



LEGUMES FOR FOKAGE 181 

Average returns per acre from alfalfa and uihcr crops 

Digestible Total 

Yield crude disestiblc Net 

per ;Kie proteiu nutrients. enerey 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Therms 

Alfalfa liav 5,040 534 2.601 1,734 

Clover Iiav 2,5S0 li)0 \,ol:i 8!»a 

Timothy Imv 2,440 7:] 1,183 81!) 

Corn (ears and stovor) . 3,440 140 2,2o0 1,702 

This average for the United States shows that alfalfa produced by 
far the largest yield per aere. with over 2.7 times as much digestible 
crude protein as clover and nearly four times as much as corn. It 
excelled even corn, the king of forage crops, in yield of total digestible 
nutrients, tho, due to the high net energy value of the corn grain, the 
corn crop surpassed alfalfa in yield of net energy. 

]\Iuch larger yields of alfalfa than the average shown in the table 
are easily secured under favorable conditions, even in the eastern 
states. Wlien amply watered by irrigation, alfalfa furnishes 2 to 5 
cuttings a season, yielding as high as 5 tons of nutritious hay per acre. 
In the hot irrigated districts of the Southwest 9 or even more cuttings 
have been secured in a season. When high temperature is comliined 
with a humid climate, alfalfa generally fails unless the soil is unusually 
favorable. Where both soil and climate are suitable, this long-time 
perennial returns good crops for many years without reseeding. 

Alfalfa for hay. — Tho alfalfa hay is richer in protein than red 
clover hay, it contains slightly less carbohydrates and is lower in fat. 
Alfalfa hay is thus somewhat more valuable than clover hay in balanc- 
ing rations low in protein, but when fed with concentrates containing 
ample protein is not superior to clover. The chief superiority over 
clover lies not in a higher feeding value per ton but in the fact that 
where alfalfa thrives it yields more tons of hay per acre. 

Alfalfa should be cut for hay as soon as new shoots are well started 
at the crown of the plant. Cutting later than this reduces the yield of 
the next crop, for many of the longer shoots will be clipped by the 
mower. By harvesting the crop at this early stage the maximum 
yield for the whole season is obtained, and the hay is more leafy and 
I)alatable. It also contains more protein and is more digestible than 
if cut later, when it contains more fiber. Early-cut hay is preferable 
for all farm animals except the horse, for which late-cut is better 
since, tho less nutritious, it is less washy. In certain sections of the 
West the first cutting often contains much wild foxtail, or squirrel- 
tail grass, which has coarse beards that are injurious to stock if the 
hay is cut at the usual stage. In such cases the alfalfa may be cut 
earlier, when the young foxtail will make good hay, or the crop may 
be ensiled, which will soften the beards. 



182 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABKIDGED 



Feeding alfalfa hay. — Since it is rich both in protein and in mineral 
matter, especially lime, which is needed in large amount in milk pro- 
duction, alfalfa hay is a most excellent feed for dairy cows. JNlore- 
over, it is highly palatable and has a beneficial laxative effect. The 
statement sometimes made that alfalfa hay is equal to wheat bran for 
dairy cows is not true, however. It supplies only about nine-tenths as 
much digestible crude protein as bran, contains nearly 3 times as much 
fiber, and furnishes only 70 per ct. as much net energy. Altho much 
less concentrates are needed when alfalfa hay is fed than when a 




Fig. 50. — Cutting Alfalfa in a Western Irrigated District 

Wlierever it tlirives, the acreage of alfalfa is rapidly increasing, due to the 
large yield of excellent hay it produces. (From U. S. Reclamation Service.) 

roughage like timothy hay is used, all the concentrates in the ration 
cannot be replaced, even by this most valuable roughage, without 
reducing the milk yield of the cows. 

The fattening of cattle and sheep in the western states has been 
revolutionized by the use of alfalfa hay, due to the large and econom- 
ical gains secured when this protein-rich roughage is fed with the 
t-arbonaceous grains and perhaps silage or wet beet pulp. Breeding 
cattle and young stuck wintered on alfalfa ha\', jjreferably with silage 
iii addition, will more than maintain their weight. Fov breeding ewes, 
oilViU';) hay is equalh' satisfactory. Owing to the fondness of horses 



LEGUMES FOR FOKAGE 183 

for this roughage, the allowance should be restricted, lest they overeat. 
Fed in proper amount, alfalfa hay has given satisfaction as the only 
roughage, even for horses at rapid work. Alfalfa hay can be largely 
used in maintaining breeding svv^ine in winter, and even for fattening 
pigs a limited amount may aid in producing cheap gains. 

Pasturing alfalfa. — Alfalfa is not primarily- a pasture plant, for, 
particularly in humid regions, grazing is apt to injure the stand. 
Moreover, cattle, and especially sheep, run risk from bloat when on 
alfalfa pasture. Nevertheless, it furnishes such nutritious feed that 
it is grazed on many farms even in the humid eastern states. To 
avoid serious injur}' to the stand, the fields should not be pastured 
until the stand has become well established, and animals should be 
Icept off when the ground is soft, muddy, or frozen. Heavy stocking 
of the pasture is decidedly injurious, especially with horses and sheep, 
which gnaw the plants to the ground. Except Avhere the winters are 
mild, alfalfa should be allowed to grow to a height of 6 to 12 inches 
in the fall for winter protection. 

Alfalfa pasture is excellent for horses and pigs, which are not sub- 
ject to bloat. For colts and young horses the succulent alfalfa, rich 
in protein and mineral matter, is especially helpful. On thousands of 
farms it is the foundation of cheap pork production. The danger to 
cattle and sheep from bloat varies greatly with climate and other fac- 
tors. Tho there is always some risk, in such districts as the hot irri- 
gated sections of the Southwest but little loss is experienced. Where 
cattle or sheep are grazed on alfalfa the following precautions should 
be taken : ^ 

For permanent pasture sow witli alfalfa, bhiegrass, l)iomo <jrass or some 
oilier firass adapted to your particular conditions. Use upland in preference to 
lowland for pasture, and have a constant supply of water for the stock. Frosted 
alfalfa is especially dangerous, but in the late fall after the crop has dried it may 
bo grazed again. Before turning animals on alfalfa for the first time, allow 
them to fill up on grass pasture, with grain in addition if they have been ac- 
customed to it. Then in the middle of the forenoon, wlien they do not care to 
graze longer, turn them on the alfalfa. Tho some advise allowing the stock 
to graze only a few minutes the first day and gradually increasing the length 
of time on the following days, it is probably safer to keep them on the pasture 
continuously, for they will then never consume undue amounts at one time. 
Watch the stock closely for tlie first few days and remove peimanently those 
animals which show symptoms of bloat, for individuals dilVer in their suscepti- 
bility to the trouble. A method used in the San Joaquin valley, California, 
when starting cattle on alfalfa pasture is to cut part of a field and turn the cattle 
on this portion after the alfalfa is half dry. Then after they are well filled they 
are allowed to eat whatever of the green crop they wish. 



1 Partly adapted from Coburn, The Book of Alfalfa, pp. 1()!)-11<); and \\Mng. 
Alfalfa Farming in America, pp. ;]38-344. 



184 FEEDS AND FEEDING;, AIUHlXillD 

Alfalfa for soilage. — Alfalfa is one of tho most valuable of all soil- 
ing- i'i-()i)s, owing' to tlie largo yields and to the fact that under proi)er 
management it will furnish rieh sueeulence thriiout the entire siuiniier. 
]\Iuch more forage, even twiee as mueh in some cases, is secured from 
a g-iven acreage as soilage than when it is pastured. In certain hot 
irrigated sections of the West where no grasses make satisfactory 
summer i)asture dairy cows are often maintained chiefly on alfalfa 
soilage during much of the year. AVhether it is pi'ofitable to feed 
alfalfa as soilage rather than to pasture it will depend on the relative 
cost of land and labor. 

Alfalfa silage. — In some instances alfalfa is ensiled with success, 
tho often a poor, vile-smelling- silage is produced. The difificnlty seems 
due to the high protein content of the crop compared with the small 
amount of sugars, from which the acids necessary to preserve the silage 
are formed. Owing to the palatabilit}" of good alfalfa hay, there is 
little reason for ensiling the crop, except when it cannot be cured in a 
satisfactory iiKinncr. Ecklcs lias r(>crntly found at tlic Alis^oui'i 
Station tliat alt';ill'a made sat isfjictoi'v silage when allowed to (\yy 
out pai'fially lict'orc nisiliiin- hy allowing it to lie in the swatli t'oi- a 
few lioni's. r>('tl('i' silage is also made when alfalfa is ensiled along 
with crops rich in sugars, snch as rye or wheat cut when just past 
the milk stage, or green corn or sorghum. 

Alfalfa meal and feed. — The manufacture of alfalfa meal (ground 
alfalfa hay) and various feeds containing more or less of this material 
has increased rapidly of late. For animals having good teeth and 
time to chew their food, grinding hay does not increase its digestibility 
or feeding value. For such animals the only advantages of the meal 
are that it may be easier to transport and there is somewhat less waste 
in feeding it. The bulky meal is also helpful in diluting heavy con- 
centrates, which might cause digestive troubles if carelessly fed. Hay 
can, however, be readily chopped sufficiently fine for this purpose on 
the farm by merely running it thru a silage cutter. Unless good 
alfalfa meal sells at an appreciably lower price than wheat bran, its 
purchase cannot be recommended, for its feeding value is lower. 
Ordinarily, the stockman can produce roughage cheaper on his farm 
than he can buy it in feed sacks. Often one cannot tell by its appear- 
ance whether the meal has been made from nutritious, early-cut hay 
or from over-ripe, stemmy material. It should therefore be bought 
on a guarantee of composition, and the fiber content should not be over 
about 30 per ct. 

^lolasses, either beet or cane, is frequently mixed with alfalfa meal, 
the product being sold as "alfalmo" or under other names. The mix- 
ture is well-liked bv stock, but its economy as a feed must be deter- 



LEGUMES FOR FOKAGE 



185 



mined by comparing the composition and price with those of other 
feeds. IMany mixed feeds, discussed in Chapter XI, contain more or 
less alfalfa meal. 

II. Red Clover 

Medium red clover. — This clover, commonly known simply as red 
clover, is the most important legume in the humid sections of the 
northern two-thirds of the United 
States, where, grown in rotation 
with corn and the cereals, it so 
helpfully serves for hay and pas- 
ture production and for the main- 
tenance of soil fertility. Clover is 
chiefly seeded in combination with 
timothy, 19,542.000 acres of mixed 
clover and timothy being grown 
for hay in the United States in 
1909, compared with only 2,413,- 
000 acres of clover alone. Red 
clover does best on well-drained 
soils rich in lime, not thriving on 
a water-logged or acid soil. But 
few plants live over 3 years, and 
the crop is usuall}^ treated as a bi- 
ennial. 

Red clover generally yields a V^c- 51.— A Young Red Clover Plant, 

, r, . J} ^'^ -j^ Sliowinjj the 'iuberoles on the 

heavy first crop of hay, with a j.^^^^ °(From U. S. Department 

lighter second cutting, which is of Agriculture.) 
often allowed to mature for seed. 

In the southern states, where it does not thrive during the heat of 
summer, red clover is sometimes grown as a winter annual, the first 
crop being cut in the spring and the second in early summer. The av- 
erage yield of clover hay per acre, according to the census of 1910, was 
1.29 tons, but under favorable conditions much higher returns are se- 
cured, the yield in 2 cuttings ranging from 2 to 4 tons or even more per 
acre. Where it flourishes, alfalfa out-yields red clover. However, red 
clover is better adapted for short-time rotations with other crops like 
corn and the cereals than the longer-lived alfalfa, which is often diffi- 
cult to establish and is therefore grown in the same field for many 
years, if possible. In their eagerness to gTOw alfalfa many eastern 
farmers are unfortunately neglecting the clovers, which are vitally 
helpful in keeping up the fertility of the whole farm thru short-time 
rotations. In many cases the growing of red or mammoth clover has 






186 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

been abandoned on account of failure to secure stands. Such ' ' clover 
sickness" of the soil may be due to certain diseases, but in most cases 
it means that lime, phosphate, and possibly potash are needed. Farm- 
ers who willingly prepare fields thoroly for alfalfa often fail to make 
reasonable efforts to get good stands of clover. 

Red clover for hay. — Clover yields the largest amount of hay per 
acre, and also more crude protein, nitrogen-free extract, and fat when 
cut at full bloom. After this period only the fiber increases, the other 
nutrients growing less, due to the withering and dropping of the lower 
leaves and the leaching of the plants by rains. This shrinkage of 
nutrients as clover matures is similar to that in the smaller grasses 
and opposite to what occurs in the corn crop. While full bloom is 
theoretically the best time to cut clover for hay, practical experience 
shows that it is best to wait until about one-third of the blossom heads 
have turned brown. This is because at any earlier date tlie plant is 
so soft and sappy that it is difficult to cure it into good hay. Delaying 
until all the heads are dead makes haying still easier, but means a 
poor, woody, unpalatable product. 

Clover for hay. — Well-cured clover hay, bright and with leaves in- 
tact, is an excellent roughage for all farm stock. Tho dusty clover 
hay is to be avoided for feeding horses, that of good quality is suc- 
cessfully and economically used with both farm and city horses. 
Mixed clover and timothy hay is preferred by many to clear clover hay 
for horse feeding, since it usually is freer from dust. 

No investigations of the experiment stations in animal husbandry 
have been more helpful than those showing the great value of the 
legumes for fattening cattle and sheep. By adding clover hay to the 
ration, the grain requirement can be materially reduced and the fat- 
tening period shortened — both matters of great importance in these 
days of high-priced concentrates. For the cow, clover hay is unex- 
celled as a roughage, unless by alfalfa. Where well-cured clover hay 
furnishes one-half or more of the roughage, the dairyman is able to 
cut the allowance of concentrates and materially reduce the cost of the 
ration. This roughage has the same high place for feeding breeding 
ewes, wintering cattle, and especially for young animals. Early-cut 
clover hay ranks next to alfalfa for swine, being especially valuable 
for breeding stock. 

Clover for pasture, soilage and silage. — Clover pasture is helpful 
and important for all farm animals. It about maintains pigs, so that 
all the grain fed goes to make gain. Pigs on clover are healthy and 
have good bone and constitution — points of special importance with 
breeding stock. Tho there is somewhat less danger from bloat with 
clover than alfalfa, cattle and sheep should not be turned on clover 



LEGUMES FOR FORAGE 187 

pasture for the first time while hungry or before the dew has risen. 
Dry forage, such as hay or straw, should also be placed in feed racks 
in the pasture. 

Clover is particularly valuable for soilage, ranking next to alfalfa, 
and furnishes 3 or 4 cuttings annually if the weather is favorable. 
In some cases clover has made good silage, but .so many failures have 
occurred that this plant cannot be recommended for such purpose, 
except where weather conditions prevent its being properly cured into 
hay. The same precautions should then be taken as with alfalfa for 
silage. 

Ill, Other Clovers and Leguminous Forage Plants 

Mammoth clover. — This clover grows ranker than medium red 
clover, has coarser stems, and blooms 2 to 3 weeks later. It usually 
lives 3 years or more and thrives better on poor or sandy soil than 
does red clover. As it is coarser, the hay is more difficult to cure and 
somewhat less palatable. Since it yields but a single cutting during 
the season, this clover is frequently pastured for several weeks in the 
early spring. After the stock is removed the plants shoot up and are 
soon ready for the mower. 

Alsike clover, — Alsike clover flourishes on land too acid or too wet 
for other clovers and is a hardier, longer-lived plant, enduring 4 to 6 
years on good soil. Since it yields but one cutting, it is excelled by 
red clover where the latter thrives. However, as alsike wall grow on 
"clover-sick" soil, it is replacing red clover on many fields. It should 
be seeded with timothy or other grasses to support the weak stems. 
Alsike hay is fine-stemmed and fully equal to red clover in value. 

White clover, — This creeping perennial thrives in almost any soil 
from Canada nearly to the Gulf of Mexico, if moisture is ample. In 
the North it is important in mixed pastures, forming a dense mat of 
herbage thruout the growing season. In the South it nearly disap- 
pears in summer, but reappears in the fall furnishing winter pas- 
turage, and thus combines well with Bermuda grass. Owing to its 
low growth it does not yield hay. 

Sweet clover. — White sweet clover is a biennial widely distributed 
along roadsides and in waste places over southern Canada and a large 
part of the United States, thriving best on soils rich in lime. It will 
grow in soil so poorly drained or so worn and low in humus that al- 
falfa or red clover will not live. Where these more valuable legumes 
do not thrive, sweet clover, which was once viewed as a weed, is of 
considerable value. It may be used for pasture, hay, and soilage, and 
has occasionally been ensiled. At first animals usually refuse sweet 
clover, for all parts of the plant contain civmarin, a bitter compound 



188 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



with a vanilla-like odor. In spring the herbage is less bitter and ani- 
mals of all classes can generally then be taught to eat it. When the 
clover is cured a large part of the cumarin is volatilized, the hay thus 
being less bitter than the green plants. 

Sweet clover seed should be thickly sown so that the stems will not 
grow coarse, and especially in the second year the crop should be cut 
when the first blossoms appear, or even before, since after this stage 
the plants rapidly grow woody. The first season 1 cutting and the 
second 2 can be secured in the North, and often 3 in the South. The 
crop should be cut about 6 inches from the- ground, for the new shoots 




Fig. 52. — A Field of Crimson Clover in Bloom 

Crimson clover, grown chiefly as a green manure and a winter cover crop, .is 
also used for pasture and hay. (From Country Gentleman.) 

grow out not from the crown, as in alfalfa, but from the stems. Sweet 
clover makes good hay lor horses, cattle, and sheep, and furnishes good 
pasture for pigs. It should be closely grazed to keep the plants from 
becoming woody. The yellow-flowered sweet clover is two weeks ear- 
lier and smaller in growth than the white variety. 

Crimson clover. — This annual, adapted to mild climates, is grown 
chiefly in the Atlantic seaboard states from New Jersey southward. 
Sown in the late summer or early fall, it blossoms the following spring 
and dies by early summer. It is grown chiefly as green manure and a 
Avinter cover crop, but is also used for pasture and hay, and to some 



LEGUMES FOR FORAGE 189 

extent for soilage. Crimson clover thrives on hotli sandy and clay 
land, if well drained, and has the advantage that the crop may be 
harvested or plowed under as manure early enough so that other crops 
may be raised the same year. When grown for hay it is important 
that crimson clover be cut by the time the flowers at the base of the 
most advanced heads have faded. After this, the minute barbed hairs 
of the blossom heads and stems become hard and wiry. If hay from 
over-ripe clover is fed to horses or mules these hairs sometimes mat 
together in the digestive tract, forming felt-like masses which plug 
the intestines, causing death. Cut at the right stage, crimson clover 
hay is about equal to that from red clover. 

Bur clovers. — The southern 'bur clover and the California hur 
clover are winter annuals that furnish valuable pasturage in mild re- 
gions. The former, which is the hardier, is found chiefly in the south- 
ern states, and the latter in California and Texas. They are admir- 
able supplements to Bermuda pasture, furnishing feed when that 
grass is resting and reseeding unless grazed too closely. Even on 
land where summer cultivated crops are grown, bur clover, if once 
sown, volunteers in the fall. 

The common field-pea vine. — The common field pea, discussed as a 
grain crop in Chapter X, is grown in Canada and the northern states 
to some extent for forage. Peas and oats, if cut early, make nutritious 
hay well liked by all classes of stock, and also silage of good quality. 
The combination is frequently sown as a spring soiling crop, espe- 
cially for dairy cows, or as pasturage, chiefly for swine. In some of 
the irrigated Rocky ]\Iountain valleys field peas, usually with a small 
quantit}^ of oats or barley, are sown extensively and grazed when 
nearl}' mature by sheep and pigs. 

Pea-cannery refuse. — Formerly the bruised pea vines and empty 
pods from the pea canneries were used only for manure. This rich 
by-product is now usually preserved in silos or in large stacks, where 
the decaying exterior preserves the mass within. The silage • has a 
strong odor but is relished by all farm animals, especially dairy cows, 
fattening cattle, and sheep. 

Cowpea. — This hot weather annual is the most important legume in 
the cotton belt, furnishing grain for humans and animals, tho chiefly 
grown for forage and green manure. It flourishes on all types of soil 
and with but little attention, increasing the fertility of the land and 
furnishing rich hay, pasturage, soilage, and silage. Sown at corn 
planting or later, early varieties mature the first pods in 70 to 90 
days. The crop may be then cut for hay, or the harvesting consid- 
erably delayed without loss. Cowpeas yield from 1 to 3 tons of hay 
per acre which is ecpial to red clover or alfalfa in value and is an 



190 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



excellent roiigliage for horses, cattle, and sheep. When cowpea hay is 
fed to dairy cows or fattening steers the concentrates may be re- 
duced to one-half the amount needed when a carbonaceous roughage, 
such as corn stover or hay from the grasses, is fed. To support the 
vines, cowpeas are often grown with corn or sorghum. Frequently, 
some of the cowpea seed is picked by hand, and the remainder of the 
crop grazed by cattle, sheep, or pigs. Cowpeas and corn or sorghum 
also make palatable protein-rich silage. Thru greater use of cow- 
peas and the other legumes which flourish there the live-stock industry 
of the South may be enormously increased. 

Soybean. — Soybeans, which mature sufficiently for hay wherever 
corn may be grown for silage, and are not injured by slight frosts, 
are better adapted to the northern part of the corn belt than cowpeas. 
Tho more drouglit-resistant than cowpeas, they will not thrive on 
such poor land. Tho plants, which are bushy, should be cut for hay 




Fig. 53. — Soybeans Which Yielded 2.5 Tons of Hay Per Acre 

Soybeans aro adapted to the same ranjre of climate as corn and, because of 
their resistance to drought, are especially suited to sandy soils. ( From Breeder's 
Gazette.) 

when the pods are well formed but before the leaves begin to turn 
yellow, for soon thereafter the stems become woody and the leaves 
easily drop off. The crop yields from 1 to 3 tons per acre of hay 
equal to cowpea or alfalfa hay in feeding value. "While soybeans 
alone make rank smelling silage, 1 ton of soybeans ensiled with 3 to 



LEGUMES FOR FORAGE 



191 



4 tons of corn or sorghum forage makes a satisfactory product. For 
this purpose the soybeans and corn or sorghum may be mixed as en- 
siled, or they may be grown together. In the South soybeans alone or 
soybeans and corn are often grazed by hogs. For this purpose the 
beans should be planted in rows to lessen the loss by tramping, and the 
hogs should not be turned in until the pods are nearly mature. In 
the northern states the chief value of soybeans is for sandy land or 
as a catch crop when clover or other crops fail. 

Vetch. — Of the vetches, only the hairy or sand vetch, and the com- 
mon vetch are important in the United States. Both are ordinarily 
annuals, tho the hairy vetch especially may live more than a year. 




Fig. 54. — Hairy Vetch and Rye in Virginia 

As hairy vetch has weak vines whicli grow from 4 to 10 feet in a tangled 
mass, it is usually grown with tlie cereals for hay. (From U. S. Department of 
Agriculture.) 



Being cool-weather plants 
the fall. While common 
vetch usually endures the 
iished in the fall. Hairy 
relative and is markedly 
hay, being usually sown 
vines that grow from 4 to 
ters are mild and the soil 



, in mild climates they are usually sown in 
vetch is killed by zero temperatures, hairy 
winter in the northern states if well estab- 
vetch may be grown in poorer soil than its 
drought resistant. It is chiefly grown for 
with the cereals, which support the weak 
10 feet in a tangled mass. AVhere the win- 
rich, common vetch is preferred, as the seed 



102 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

is cheaper jiikI die vines f^fow less laiij^led. Tlic vetehes yield from 
1.5 to 2.5 tons or more of hay per acre and furnish excellent pasturage 
for cattle, sheep, and swine. 

Lespedeza. — Japan clover, commonly called lespedeza in the South, 
is a summer annual which has now spread over most of the territory'' 
from central New Jersey westward to central Kansas and south to the 
Gulf. Here, even on the poorest soils, it appears spontaneously in 
mixed pastures, and unless closely grazed reseeds freely. On the 
poorer lands of the cotton belt lespedeza is perhaps the most valuable 
pasture plant, adding nitrogen to the soil, binding it together, pre- 
venting washing, and furnishing pasturage well-liked by all stock. 
This legume has not been known to cause bloat. Onlj^ on rich soil 
does it grow tall enough for hay. 

Velvet beans. — The tropical velvet bean flourishes south of a line 
drawn from Savannah, Georgia, to Austin, Texas. The vines, which 
run on the ground from 15 to 75 feet, are difficult to cure into hay, 
and are mostly used for grazing. As high as 30 bushels of shelled 
beans per acre have been secured. The beans are commonly fed in 
the pod, 1.5 tons of pod beans being worth as much as 1 ton of cot- 
tonseed meal for dairy cows. When fed exclusively, velvet beans 
produce poor quality pork. 

Beggar weed. — This annual legume, which has rather woody stalks 
3 to 10 feet high bearing abundant leafage, is used for green forage 
and hay production in the sub-tropical regions of our country. Cut 
at the beginning of bloom, when 3 to 4 feet high, it yields from 2.25 
to 4 tons of excellent hay per acre. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are tlie advantages of leguminous rougliages? 

2. Compare alfalfa hay with timothy liay and discuss its importance for 
stock feeding. 

3. How would you use alfalfa for pasture? 

4. Discuss the use of alfalfa for soilage; for silage. 

5. What is the value of alfalfa meal? 

6. Summarize the advantages of red clover in farming and stock feeding. 

7. Treat briefly of the value of the other clovers — mammotii, alsike, white, 
sweet, crimson, and bur. 

8. How are field peas used as a forage plant? 

!). Discuss the value and uses of cowpeas, soybeans, vetch, lespedeza, and velvet 
beans. 



CHAPTER XV 

EOOTS, TUBERS, AND MISCELLANEOUS FORAGES 

I. Roots and Tubers 

In northern Europe and in eastern Canada root crops are exten- 
sively grown for stock, but in this country they have never been 
widely used. Indeed, in 1909 over 5,000 acres of corn were raised in 
the United States for each acre of roots grown for feeding. This dif- 
ference is natural, for northern Europe, with its cool summers, is 
well suited to growing roots but not corn. In most parts of our 
country the summers are hot and this imperial grain and forage crop 
thrives, furnishing in corn silage a palatable succulent feed cheaper 
than roots. Therefore, growing roots for stock is advisable only in 
those districts where the summers are too cool for corn, and on farms 
in the corn belt where too few animals are kept to use silage econom- 
icall}^ or where roots serve as a relish for show animals or dairy cows 
on official test or for swine or poultry. 

Use and value of roots. — Since the dry matter of roots is as di- 
gestible as that of the grains, roots should not be regarded as rough- 
ages, but as watered concentrates. For dairy cows a pound of dry 
matter in roots is as valuable as a pound of dry matter in corn or 
barley, and roots can replace half the concentrates ordinarily fed, 
without reducing the yield of milk or butter. In addition to the 
nutrients they furnish, roots and other succulent feeds have a bene- 
ficial tonic effect upon animals, and are especially helpful in keeping 
breeding cattle, sheep, and swine in thrift}' condition. ]\Iany suc- 
cessful stockmen recommend roots highly for animals being fitted for 
show and for dairy cows crowded to maximum production on official 
tests. 

In this country the daily allowance of roots per 1,000 lbs. live 
weight is from 25 to 50 lbs. or less, while in Great Britain it is often 
100 lbs. or more. Roots are usually chopped or sliced before feeding 
and often meal is sprinkled over them in the feed box. Considerable 
straw and other low-grade roughage may be advantageously fed with 
roots by following the English practice of pulping the roots, spread- 
ing them in layers with chaffed straw or hay and shovelling the 
mass over, and then feeding after several hours, when the roughage 

193 



104 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

is moistened and softened. In the northern states, roots must he 
stored in winter in -well-ventilated pits or cellars; in mild climates 
they may remain in the fields until fed. In Great Britain sheep are 
often grazed on root crops, saving the labor of harvesting. 

Roots vs. corn silage. — To grow, harvest, and store an acre of roots 
costs considerably more than to grow an acre of corn and ensile it, 
])ecause root crops require more thoro preparation of the soil and far 
more liaiid labor in cultivation, harvesting, and storage. iMoreover, 
trials at three stations show that corn silage will yield on the average 
from 68 to 92 per et. more dry matter per acre than mangels, sugar 
beets, or rutabagas. AVhere corn thrives corn silage will furnish dry 
matter at half the cost of roots or less, and in trials with dairy cows 
the dry matter of corn silage has proven fully as valuable as that of 
roots. We should remember that roots are much more watery than 
silage and that 100 lbs. of roots are therefore worth correspondingly 
less than 100 lbs. of corn silage. Trials with fattening lambs show 
]00 lbs. of corn silage is equal to 150 lbs. of roots in feeding value. 

The mangel. — The mangel, or mangel wurzel, is the most watery of 
roots, containing but 9.4 per ct. dry matter. Yet, due to its enor- 
mous yield — 20 to 30 tons per acre on good soil and sometimes more 
— it produces a large amount of dry matter per acre. Because it 
stands well out of the ground, this root is much more easily culti- 
vated and harvested than the sugar beet and it keeps better in winter. 
Mangels are useful for all farm animals, except possibly horses. 
However, if fed to rams or wethers for long periods, both mangels 
and sugar beets produce dangerous calculi, or stones, in the urinary 
organs. INIangels should not be fed until after storage for a few 
weeks, as freshly harvested roots may cause scouring. Half-sugar 
mangels, crosses between sugar beets and mangels, are richer in dry 
matter than mangels. 

Sugar beet. — This root has been so developed for sugar production 
that some strains now contain 16 per ct. or more of sugar. The yield 
is smaller than that of mangels, but, due to the higher sugar content, 
sugar beets generally produce as much dry matter per acre. They 
demand more labor in cultivating and harvesting than mangels, as 
they set deep in the ground. They are well-liked by stock and are 
often fed to dairy cows on test. 

Where beets are grown for sugar factories, the cull beets and the 
tops and leaves should be fed to stock. The tops and leaves may be 
fed fresh or they may be ensiled, either alone or with an equal weight 
of dry corn fodder, water being added in the latter case so that the 
mass will pack well. 

Rutabaga. — The rutabaga, or swede, extensively grown in Great 



ROOTS AND TUBERS 



195 



Britain and Canada, ranks next to the mangel in ease of cultivation, 
and sheep prefer it to all other roots. Like other turnips, rutabagas 
may taint the milk of cows, and should therefore be fed immediately 
after milking. 

Turnip. — The turnip is more watery than the rutabaga and does 
not keep so well. Maturing early, turnips are used chiefly for early 
fall feeding, and often yield large crops, even when sown as a catch 
crop and without cultivation. Tho used mainly for sheep, they can 
also be fed to cattle. 




Fig. 55. — Sugar Beets in a "Western Irrigated District 



Wliile but relatively few acres of sii.uar beets are grown for stock feeding in 
tliis country, the raising of sugar beets for tlie beet sugar factories is an impor- 
tant industry in certain Sections, es])ecially in some of the irrigated districts of 
the West. (From U. S. Reclamation Service.) 

Carrot. — Under favorable conditions stock carrots yield heavily. 
They are relished by horses, but should be fed sparingly to hard- 
Avorked or driving horses. They are also useful for other stock, espe- 
cially dairy cows. 

Parsnip. — Parsnips, the favorite root with dairy farmers on the 
islands of Jersey and Guernsey, contain about as much dry matter as 
sugar beets. They are little grown in this country, on account of the 
low yield and the difficulty of harvesting. 

Potato. — In Europe heavy-yielding varieties of potatoes are ex- 



196 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



tensively g'l'O'wii for slock, l)ut in 1liis count I'v polaloos are not usually 
fed to stock, unless low in price or too small for marketing. They 
are fed chiefly to pigs, but can also be given in limited amounts to 
cattle, sheep, and horses as a partial substitute for grain. For pigs 
they should be steamed or boiled. The heavy feeding of raw potatoes 
is not advisable as it induces scouring. The bitter tasting water in 
which potatoes are cooked should be thrown away, likewise all unripe 
tubers and the sprouts, which may contain considerable solanin, a 
poison. German experience shows that half the dry matter in rations 




'J'A* 
















Fig. 56. — Sweet Potatoes after the Vines Have Nearly Covered 

THE Ground 

Sweet potatoes are one of the beat root crops for pigs for fall and early winter 
feeding in tlie South, and may also be fed to cattle or horses. (From U. S. De- 
partment of Agriculture.) 



for fattening cattle and sheep, and one-fourth in those for horses, 
may be furnished in potatoes. Feeding over 35 lbs. per head daily 
to dairy cows injures the quality of the butter. 

Jerusalem artichoke. — The tubers of this hardy perennial, which 
resemble the potato in composition, are sometimes grown for stock. 
The tubers live over winter in the ground and enough are usually left 
to make the next crop. They may be harvested like potatoes, or pigs 
may be turned in to gather the crop, being fed grain in addition. 



ROOTS AND TUBERS 107 

Tho the artichoke has been highly praised, nowhere in this country 
does it seem to be grown continuously — a significant fact. 

Sweet potato. — This southern crop, which may be grown as far 
north as New Jersey and Illinois, serves chiefly for human food, but 
is also fed to stock, especially pigs, which do their own harvesting. 
The crop is especially suited to sandy land. Tho the average yield 
is 90 bushels per acre, some fanners raise 200. Sweet potatoes are one 
of the best root crops for pigs for fall and early winter grazing, and 
may also be fed to cattle or substituted for half the corn in rations for 
work horses. The vines, tho difficult to gather, are often fed in the 
green state. 

Chufa. — The chufa sedge, frequently a weed on southern farms, 
produces small, chaffy tubers that are relished by pigs, which are 
turned in to harvest the crop. They are low in digestible protein and 
should be supplemented by protein-rich feeds. In one trial a good 
crop of chufas produced 592 lbs. of pork per acre, after allowing for 
the other feed consumed by the pigs. 

Cassava. — The cassava, a bushy plant growing from 4 to 10 feet 
high, yields flesh}^ roots, like those of the sweet potato. Tropical 
varieties carry much prussic acid and must be heated before feeding, 
but those grown in this country are not poisonous. The culture of 
cassava in the United States has declined in recent years, due to the 
fact that sweet potatoes give larger yields at less expense. 

II. Miscellaneous Succulent Feeds 

Rape. — Dwarf Essex rape, a member of the turnip and cabbage 
family, now widely grown thruout the United States, stores its nutri- 
ment in the numerous leaves and stems. Bird seed rape is worthless 
for forage. While rape may be used for soiling, it is best to let stock 
harvest the crop. The plants should never be grazed so closely that 
only the bare stalks remain, or the yield of new leaves will be reduced. 

The seed, which is inexpensive, may be sown from early spring to 
August in the North and even later in the South, either broadcast or 
in drills and cultivated. It may also be sown in corn previous to the 
last cultivation. In 6 to 12 weeks after seeding the crop is large 
enough for use. As it endures quite severe frosts, rape is excellent 
for late autumn feed. 

Rape ranks high as a pasture crop for sheep and pigs, for which it 
is chiefly used. To avoid tainting the milk of dairy cows, it should 
be fed or grazed only directly after milking. Cattle having the run 
of a rape field in the fall will go into winter quarters in high condi- 
tion. Access to clover or bluegrass pasture when on rape is advan- 



198 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABIUDGED 

tageous to stock, especially cattle and sheep, as it reduces the danger 
from bloat. Animals on rape should be freely supplied with salt, as 
this tends to check any undue laxative effect. 

Cabbage. — Cabbage is little grown for stock feeding in this coun- 
try, because of the labor required in its cultivation. It is sometimes 
fed to milch cows, and is a favorite with shepherds when preparing 
stock for exLibition. 

Kohlrabi. — Tlio yielding less than the rutabaga, kohlrabi, another 
member of the cabbage family, can be grown wherever the former 
thrives. Since the thickened, turnip-like stem .stands well aljove 
ground, it is readily pastured by sheep. Kohlrabi has not been known 
to taint the milk, when fed to dairy cows. 

Kale. — This cabbage-like plant, which does not form heads, is grown 
extensively in AVashington and Oregon, where it is considered the 
best soiling crop for dairy cows. Yields of 35 to 45 tons and even 
more are secured on rich soil. In the mild climate of that section 
kale is fed from October to April, as it endures frost. Unless fed 
after milking it may taint the milk of cows. Kale is also excellent 
for sheep and swine. 

Pumpkin, squash, and melon. — Pumpkins are often planted in 
corn fields and the fruits used as relishes for stock. For dairy cows 
2.5 tons of pumpkins, including seeds, are equal to 1 ton of corn 
silage. Tho often cooked for pigs, raw pumpkins give just as good 
results. The seeds of pumpkins, sometimes removed thru a mistaken 
idea that they are harmful, are full of nutriment and should not be 
wasted. AVith pigs, they act as a vermifuge and put the digestive or- 
gans in good condition. As the seeds are rich in protein and oil. eat- 
ing an excess may cause digestive disturbances. Squashes and 
melons, especially citrons, are also fed to stock. 

Apples and other fruits. — AA^indfall apples, pears, peaches, plums, 
oranges, figs, etc., may often be fed advantageously to stock, and with 
an unprofitable fruit market even sound fruit may be thus utilized. 
The chief nutrients of fruits are the sugars, and, since they are all 
low in protein, they should be fed with protein-rich feeds. For dairy 
cows apples have 40 per ct. of the value of corn silage, Avhile apple 
pomace is almost equal to it. AVhen fed with shorts and skim milk 
to pigs, 100 lbs. of apples have equalled from 9 to 15 lbs. of concen- 
trates.^ 

Sagebrush, saltbush, and the greasewoods. — These plants of the 
desert flourish on the western plains where drought, alkali, and com- 
mon salt shut o'iit most of the ordinary forage crops. On many ranges 
they furnisli much of the feed consumed by stock. The Australian 

lUtah SiU, 101. 



ROOTS AND TUBERS 



199 



saltbush, introduced into California and Arizona, will produce 15 to 
20 tons of green forage per acre under favorable conditions, or 3 to 5 
tons of coarse hay which has about the same digestibility as oat 
hay. 

Cacti. — During periods of drought the cacti, especially prickly 
pears, are a boon to stockmen of the arid western regions. Because 
of their peculiar structure and habits, cacti can survive long droughts, 
tho they make little growth at such times. Prickly pear cacti may be 
fed where they stand by first singeing off the spines with a gasoline 




Fig. 57. — Singeing Prickly Peae with a Gasoline Torch 

After the spines have been singed off cattle can feed on prickly pear without 
harm. Another method is to cut the cacti and run them tliru machines which 
cliop them, rendering the spines comparatively harmless. (From U. S. Dejiart- 
nicnt of Agriculture.) 

torch, or they may be gathered and run thru machines which chop 
them in such a manner that the spines are comparatively harmless. 
Cacti grow but slowly on the range, and can usually be harvested but 
once in 5 years, even under favorable conditions. 

Prickly pear cacti contain about 16.5 per ct. dry matter, being less 
watery than roots, and cane cacti contain somewhat more dry matter. 
Since they are low in protein, all the cacti should be fed with a pro- 
tein-rich concentrate or roughage. Cacti alone do not maintain stock. 
Tho desert cattle sometimes subsist on them for 3 months of the year, 



!)()(( FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

lliey hci'oiiic very emaciated. Fed in large amounts with no dry feed 
eaeti lend to produce scours. 

Spineless eaeti, long known, but of late exploited as a novelty, have 
only limited usefulness for stock feeding, both because they do not 
survive where the temperature falls below 20° F., and l)eeause on the 
open range cattle readily destroy them. Moreover, in the West, they 
nnist be enclosed by rabbit-proof fences. 

The chief importance of cacti will nndoubtedly be to furnish emer- 
gt'ucy forage for stock in the semi-arid plains regions. For this pur- 
jXKse plantations of llie siniiy cacti may be established on the open 
range, where they will be able to grow and hold their own until 
serious drought, for cattle wull not graze them when other feed is 
available. All cacti have little value in humid regions. 

Sunflowers. — Recently a tall variety of sunflowers, Mammoth Rus- 
sian, has attracted considerable attention as a silage crop, especially 
in districts of the AVest where the season is too short and cool foi- 
corn. Sunflower silage resembles in composition silage from rather 
immature corn but furnishes slightly less digestible nutrients. Large 
yields have been secured and the silage has been fed with good to 
fair results to cattle and sheep. Sunflowers have also been used as 
a soiling crop. Where corn or the sorghums thrive, .sunflowers should 
be raised only in an experimental way until their value for that 
particular locality has been determined. 

III. Poisonous Plants 

Only the briefest mention can be made of the leading plants poison- 
ous to stock. One in trouble should send suspected specimens to the 
experiment .station of his state, or to the T'nited States Department of 
Agriculture. 

Plants carrying prussic acid. — Prnssic acid, a deadly poison, is 
found in many plants. The leaves of the wild cherry, especially 
when wilted, are particularly fatal to cattle. When the sorghums, 
both sweet and grain varieties, are stunted by drought, enough prus- 
sic acid may develop to kill cattle grazing on them. Caution should 
be used in feeding stunted or second-growth sorghum, kafir, Johnson- 
grass, etc. Wilted or cured sorghum and sorghum silage are not 
poisonous. 

Ergot. — The seeds of rye and many of the grasses are sometimes 
attacked by a fungus which produces poisonous black masses known 
as ergot. Affected animals should have their feed changed to remove 
Ihe cause, and l)e wai-mly housed and liberally fed. 

Forage poisoning. — During i-ecent yeai-s sei'ious losses of stock 



HOOTS AND TUBERS 201 

have occurred from forage poisoning, or "blind staggers,'' caused by 
eating moldy feed or drinking water that has passed thru moldy 
vegetation. Horses and mules succumb most easily but cattle are also 
affected. The mortality is high in well-developed cases; therefore, 
animals showing the slightest symptoms should have their feed 
changed. If moldy feed nuist be given, it should be fed sparingly 
and mixed with other feeds of good quality. 

Cornstalk disease, — All efforts to determine the cause of a mysteri- 
ous and fatal aihnent, called corn-stalk disease, which attacks cattle 
turned into stalk fields during fall and winter in the West, have 
failed. Danger can be avoided by cutting and shocking the corn and 
feeding the fodder or the stover after husking. 

Corn smut. — Since cows have been fed as much as 10 lbs. of corn 
smut daily for considerable periods without harm, it is reasonable to 
hold that it is not generally dangerous to cattle. 

Loco poisoning. — In Colorado alone a million dollars has been lost 
annually thru "loco" poisoning, brought on by eating various plants, 
mostly legumes, which in certain regions may contain barium salts. 
The trouble is most prevalent in the spring, when the emaciated range 
animals are forced because of scanty forage to eat plants they would 
ordinarily reject. 

Castor beans. — Castor beans and castor pomace contain a deadly 
poison, which maj^ be destroyed by exposing the castor oil cake or the 
seeds to the air for 5 to 6 days, or by cooking them for 2 hours. 

Miscellaneous poisonous plants.— The common horsetail, water hem- 
lock, poison hemlock, death camas, several species of larkspur, cockle 
bur, woody aster, and many other plants are more or less poisonous 
to stock. However, animals seldom eat poisonous plants unless forced 
to do so by hunger. When grazing is short, stock should be kept away 
from areas definitely known to be infested with such plants. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Discuss tlie uses of roots for stock feeding. 

2. Compare tlie value and economy of roots and corn silaire. 

3. Name the five most important root crops for tlie Nortli and discuss tlicir 
value. 

4. Of what value are potatoes for stock? 

5. Name three root crops grown only in the Sontli and state tlieir merits. 

6. State the value and uses of rape for stock. 

7. Discuss the value of tliree other memheis of the cabl)age family. 

8. What are the uses of sagebrusli, saltbush, the greasewoods, and the cacti 1 

9. Name some of the plants poisonous to stock. 



CHAPTER XVI 

SILAGE— SOILAGE 

I. Silage and the Silo 

The preservation of green forage by placing it in pits or heaps and 
covering with earth has long been practiced in Europe. However, 
silos — special structures built mainly above ground to contain such 
material — have been in use only during the past 40 years. From 
1879, when the first silo was built in tliis country, the use of silage has 
increased rapidly, until now it is a factor of vast importance in Amer- 
ican agriculture. 

How ensiling preserves forage. — When green forage is packed 
firmly in a chamber with air-tight walls, such as a silo, fermentations 
take place, caused both by the enzymes contained in the plant cells and 
by bacteria and yeasts carried into the silo on the forage. During these 
fermentations much of the sugar in the forage is broken down into 
organic acids, chiefly lactic acid (the acid in sour milk) and acetic acid 
(the acid in vinegar). In these changes oxygen is taken up and car- 
bon dioxid (carbonic acid gas) given off. At first the oxygen in the 
air which has been entrapped in the ensiled mass is used up, but if 
the forage has been well packed, this is soon exhausted. The enzymes 
and bacteria then obtain the oxygen for these decompositions from the 
oxygen-containing compounds in the forage — chiefly the sugars. 
When the sugar in the forage has been changed into acids the fermen- 
tation is checked, for the other carbohydrates are attacked to only a 
small extent. It is due to this that corn or sorghum makes less acid 
silage when well matured than if ensiled when the plants contain 
more sugar. Even tho much sugar is present, the fermentation fi- 
nally comes to an end, for sufficient acid is produced to prevent both 
the further growth of the bacteria and yeasts and the action of the 
plant enzymes. During the fermentation the temperature rises some- 
what, but rarely reaches 100° F. if the mass has been well tramped to 
exhaust the air. 

The acid in silage prevents the growth of undesirable putrefying 
bacteria, such as cause the decaying of meat. The foul-smelling silage 
often obtained from alfalfa, clover, and other legumes is largely due 
to the fact that not enough sugar is present in such ])lants to form 
sufficient acid to check the growtli of these putrefying bacteria. 

•202 



SILAGE— SOILAGE 



203 



After a few days the silage-making processes cease, and no appre- 
ciable changes will take place so long as the air is excluded. In- 
stances are on record where silage made 12 to 14 years before has been 
found to be of excellent quality. Tho the conversion of sugar into 
acids is the chief change in good silage, a considerable part of the 
protein is also broken down into amino acids. Since this splitting of 
the protein into simpler compounds is similar to digestion in the ani- 
mal, it probably does not lessen, the nutritive value. 




Fig. 58. — Silos have Revolutionized Stock Feeding in Many 

Districts 

The silo provides liigli-quality succulent feed for any .season of the year, with a 
low e.xpense for labor and a minimum wastage of nutrients. 



Advantages of silage. — The widespread use of the silo for the 
preservation of forage is easily explained when we consider the ad- 
vantages this system offers, the more important of which are : 

1. At a low expense silage furnishes high-quality succulent feed 
for any desired season of the year. The cost of silage per ton will 
vary widely, depending on the price of labor, the yield of forage per 
acre, and the rent of the land. However, when average yields are 
secured the cost of corn silage should not be over $3.50 to iji-t.OO per 



204 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

ton, ineluding land rental, cost of manure or fertilizers, seed, labor 
and other expenses in growing and harvesting the crop, as well as in- 
terest and depreciation on machinery. For winter feeding, silage is 
far cheaper than roots and as efificient, except possibly in the case of 
animals being fitted for shows and milch cows on forced test. In 
summer silage furnishes succulent feed with less bother and expense 
than do soiling crops. 

2. When crops are properly ensiled, less of the nutrients are wasted 
thru the fermentations which take place than are lost when the forage 
is cured as hay or dry fodder. 

3. Silage, even from plants with coarse stalks, such as corn and the 
sorghums, is eaten practically without waste. On the other hand, 
from 20 to 35 per ct. of dry corn fodder, even if of good quality, is 
usuall}^ wasted. The use of silage thus permits the keeping of more 
stock on a given area of land. 

4. Crops may be ensiled when the weather is unfavorable for curing 
them into dry fodder. In some sections of the South the corn crop 
can not be preserved satisfactorily as grain and stover on account of 
the dampness and also because rodents and weevils ruin the stored 
grain. Ensiling the crop overcomes both difficulties. 

5. "Weedy crops, which make poor hay, may make silage of good 
quality, the ensiling process killing practically all weed seeds. 

6. The product from a given area can be stored in less space as 
silage than as dry forage. A cubic foot of hay in the mow, weighing 
about 5 lbs., contains approximately 4.3 lbs. of dry matter. An aver- 
age cubic foot of corn silage from a 30-foot silo, weighing about 39.6 
lbs., will contain 10.4 lbs. dry matter, or nearly 2.5 times as much. 

7. Ensiling the corn crop clears the land early so it may be prepared 
for another crop. 

Crops for the silo. — The suitability of the leading crops for silage 
has been discussed in the preceding chapters. Indian corn is the best 
silage plant, sorghos and the grain sorghums ranking next in value 
and importance. Green cereals are fairly satisfactory for silage, if 
ensiled before the stems become woody, and if the cut forage is well 
tramped to force the air out of the hollow stems. 

The legumes have proved disappointing for silage. Better results 
have been secured with alfalfa and clover when they are ensiled with 
other plants which carry more sugar, such as green rye, wheat, corn, 
or sorghum. Whenever these legumes can be cured into satisfactory 
hay, there is little need of ensiling them, for more reliable silage crops 
may usually be grown. When ensiled with corn or the sorghums, 
cowpeas and soybeans produce silage of high quality, rich in proteiji. 
The refuse of pea canneries makes a silage much relished by stock. 



SILAGE— SOILAGE 205 

Such substances as boot ])iili), beet tops, apple pomace, the waste 
from sweet com canneries, and sorghum bagtisse may be successfully 
preserved in silos, or placed in heaps and covered with earth, or even 
massed in large heaps without covering, in which case the outside por- 
tion on decaying forms a preserving crust. Weeds and other waste 
vegetation may sometimes be advantageously ensiled. (Cabbage, va])e, 
and turnii)s make unsatisfactory silage, ill-smelling and watery. 

Silage on the stock farm. — Over a large part of the United States 
the use of silage is a most important means of lowering the cost of 
producing milk and meat. Apart from the nutrients it contains, this 
succulent feed aids in keeping stock in thrifty condition so that they 
will make the most from their feed. Since it furnishes at any time of 
the year a uniform supi)ly of succulent feed nearly equal in palatability 
and nutritive effect to the pasturage of earl}^ summer, silage is unex- 
celled for dairy cows, beef cattle, and sheep. With an abundance of 
silage and legume hay the amount of concentrates which must be pur- 
chased or grown may be greatl}^ reduced. Silage is especially valuable 
for breeding stock and young animals, keeping them in better condition 
than if wintered on dry forage alone. On too many farms stock cattle 
barely hold their own during winter. This means that for half of each 
year all the feed consumed goes for body maintenance, returning 
nothing to the owner, and serving only to carry the animals over to 
pasture time, when they once more may gain in weight and reall.y 
increase in value. By the use of corn silage, combined with other 
cheap roughages, young cattle may gain steadily all winter at small 
cost, and by spring they will be in condition to make the largest pos- 
sible gains from pasture. Silage is a valuable succulence for sheep, 
but must be fed in moderation to ewes before lambing or weak, flabby 
lambs may result. Good silage may also be used in a limited way with 
idle horses and those not hard worked in winter, especially brood 
mares and colts. 

Spoiled, moldy silage should always be discarded, and special care 
taken to feed no such material to sheep or horses, which are much more 
easily affected by it than cattle. Silage which is very sour is apt to 
cause digestive disturbances with sheep. For all animals only as much 
silage should be supplied as will be cleaned up at each feeding. Care 
should be taken to remove any waste, for it spoils in a short time on 
exposure to the air. Frozen silage must be thawed before feeding. 

The amount of silage commonly fed per head daily to the various 
classes of stock is about as follows: 

Dairy cows, 30 to 50 lbs. for those in milk, with somewhat less for 
dry COWS; dairy heifers, 12 to 20 lbs. ; beef breeding cowsj ,30 to 50 lbs. ; 
fattening 2-year-old steers, 25 to 30 lbs. at the beginning of the fat- 



206 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

telling period, the allowance decreasing as they fatten until only 10 to 
15 lbs. is fed ; brood mares and idle horses, 15 to 30 lbs. ; breeding 
ewes, 2 lbs. (sometimes as much as 3 to 4 lbs. is safely fed) ; fattening 
lambs, 1.5 to 3 lbs. 

Summer silage. — ^lany farmers who fully appreciate the value of 
silage for winter feeding do not realize its value for supplementing 
dried-up pastures in the summer, or as a partial substitute for pas- 
turage on high-priced land where all the stock possible must be kept 
per acre. In a 3-year comparison of soilage crops and corn silage as 
summer supplements to pasture for dairy cows, at the Wisconsin 
Station,^ silage proved fully as efficient in producing milk and butter 
fat as soilage, and was far cheaper and more convenient. To provide a 
succession of green feed by means of soiling crops, it is necessary to fit 
and plant comparatively small areas to various crops at different times. 
As the cut soilage will quickly heat and become unpalatable in warm 
weather if placed in piles, a supply must be harvested each day, or at 
least every two or three days. Harvesting in small quantities and in 
all sorts of weather is inconvenient and expensive, and the work must 
be done at the busiest season of the year. On the other hand, when 
corn or the sorghums are grown for silage the large fields are fitted, 
planted, cultivated, and harvested with labor saving machinery at 
minimum expense, and feeding the silage takes but a few minutes daily. 

Corn and sorghum return greater yields of nutrients than many of 
the crops it is necessary to include in a soiling system. Silage fur- 
nishes feed of uniformly high quality thruout the season, a goal which 
is difficult to reach by soiling, for one crop is often exhausted or too 
mature before the next is in prime condition for feeding. The years 
Avhen drought is severe and pastures unusually short are the very times 
when soiling crops will be scant or may even fail. By means of the 
silo, the crop may be carried over from one year to the next, thus pro- 
viding insurance against drought. In summer feeding, at least two 
inches of silage and preferably more should be removed from the sur- 
face each day, or the exposed material will decay. 

Filling the silo. — Especially with such coarse material as corn or 
sorghum forage, silage keeps much better when cut into short lengths 
and is therefore usually run thru a silage cutter. The cut material is 
also easier to remove from the silo. When filling the silo the inpouring 
material should be thoroly mixed and evenly spread, so it will settle 
uniformly. The material should be especially well tramped near the 
wall and kept higher than at the center, as the friction at the wall re- 
(tards the settling. If the forage is too dry to pack well, water should 
be added to the mass in the silo or to the cut forage as it passes thru the 

1 WoU, Humphrey, and Oosterliiiis, Wis. Bui. 235. 



SILAGE— SOILAGE 207 

blower. The forage will settle considerably after the silo is filled, and 
more may then be put in, any spoiled surface material being first 
removed. If feeding is not to begin immediately, the surface should 
be wet down thoroly and tramped well several times the first week, 
when the rotting forage will form a layer on top that protects the rest. 
To lessen the waste, it is well to remove the ears from the last few loads 
of forage and cover the top with cheap refuse such as straw or weeds, 
wet with water. AVhen feeding begins, all spoiled silage should be 
discarded. 

On going into the silo after an intermission in filling, one should 
always beware of the danger from carbon dioxid. This may accumu- 
late in sufficient quantities to prove fatal. If a lighted lantern or 
candle lowered into the silo continues to burn, it is safe, but if the 
light goes out it means death to one entering. Opening a door low 
down in the silo or pouring in a lot of fresh cut forage will soon drive 
out the deadly gas. 

Types of silos. — Silos may be constructed of wood, solid concrete, 
concrete blocks, brick, stone, glazed tile, or sheet steel. In the semi- 
arid regions pit silos, preferably with cement lining and curb, are 
extensively used, but these are impracticable in humid climates. In 
the southwestern states silos are sometimes built of adobe, reinforced 
with wire and plastered with cement. The choice between the various 
tj'pes of construction, all of which ifiake good silos when well-built, 
will depend upon local conditions. This work presents only the pri- 
mary principles relating to silo construction, advising those interested 
to secure from the state experiment stations or the United States 
Department of Agriculture instructions concerning materials and man- 
lier of construction suited to their locality. 

Requisites of a good silo. — The satisfactory silo meets the following 
conditions: 1. Air-tight walls. The silo walls must be air-tight and 
the doors fit snugly, for if air gains entrance the fermentations will 
continue and molds will grow, spoiling the silage. 

2. Cylindrical shape. In the early silos, which were rectangular, it 
was exceedingly difficult to pack the mass in the corners so that it 
would not spoil. The cylindrical silo has no comers, the sides are 
strong and unyielding, and it provides the largest possible cubic 
capacity for a given amount of building material. 

3. Smooth, perpendicular, strong icalls. Unless the walls of the silo 
are smooth and perpendicular, cavities will form along the walls as 
the mass settles and the adjacent silage will spoil. The walls must be 
strong and rigid, for while the silage is settling a great outward pres- 
sure is developed. 

4. Depth. By making the silo deep the great pressure compacts all 



1>()S FEKDS AND FKKDINC. Al'.h' I IH IKD 

liiit llic ui>|)('nii(isi hiyci-s so lli.il llic losses tliru tVrmentation are 
reduced to a ininiiiuiiii. Wliilc over '-'A) ])er ct. of tlie dry matter may 
he lost in the layer of silage near the surface, the loss in the rest of the 
silo should be less than 10 per et. 

Capacity of silos. — The first part (A) of the following table - shows 
Ihe estimated capacity of silos for well-matured corn or sorghum 
silage when the silage has l)een well-ti'amped and allowed to settle 
one day, and the silo then reHlknl. The second part (B) shows the 
estimated tonnage when the silage has settled for one month or 
more. The depth indicated is the actual depth of the silage, not the 
height of the silo wall. Il is therefore necessary to have the silo 
about 5 feet higher than the depth giVen to allow for settling. The 
table shows, for example, that a silo 14 feet in diameter, which con- 
tains 20 feet of silage one month after settling, will hold about 58 
tons of corn silage. 

Approximdif (•(ipacifi/ of cjilhidr'nuil silos in tons of com sihif/e 



A. Cn/inci 


■III ,>■),,■ 


,1 jilllll! 


/ ix (• 


1)111 l.lrtr. 


-/.* 
















Inside 


























(liiiiiu'tcr 
in fci't,. 










Do 


|itli of si 


Inse in 


feet— 












18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 


32 


34 


36 


38 


40 


1(1 . . . . 


20 


•j:; 


2 


::!0 


3 3 


.3 7 


41 












12 . . . . 


28 


?,?, 


38 


42 


48 


53 


58 


64 


70 








14 . . . . 


:i8 


4.') 


.t1 


.58 


65 


72 


80 


87 


95 


103 


lil 


120 


1(! . . . . 


.lO 


.■>8 


67 


76 


85 


94 


104 


114 


124 


135 


145 


156 


18 . . . . 


1 


74 


8 4 


96 


107 


119 


132 


144 


157 


171 


184 


198 


20 . . . . 


78 


91 


104 


118 


132 


147 


162 . 


178 


194 


211 


227 


244 


22 . . . , 


. 95 


110 


126 


143 


160 


178 


196 


215 


235 


2 5 5 


27.5 


296 





8 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


' "20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 


10 . . 


. . 11 


14 


17 


20 


23 


20 


29 


33 


36 


39 


43 


46 


12 . . 


. . 10 


20 


2 4 


29 


33 


38 


42 


47 


52 


5li 


61 


66 


14 . . 


. . 21 


27 


33 


39 


45 


51 


58 


04 


70 


77 


83 


90 


16 . . 


. . 28 


35 


43 


51 


59 


07 


7.5 


84 


92 


100 


109 


118 


18 . . 


. . 35 


44 


54 


6-1 


75 


85 


95 


106 


116 


127 


138 


148 


20 . . 


. . 43 


.5 .5 


7 


80 


92 


105 


lis 


1.30 


144 


157 


170 


184 



* -A. If corn is iimisually <lrv when ensiled, (U'diict 10 per ct. from tlip capacity 
given. If corn is dry and \ery little urain is present, deduct l.> per ct. If silo 
is filled rapidly and no time is allowed for settlin-; deduct 1(1 per ct. 

** B. For corn ensiled when less mature than usual add 10 to 1.") per ct. to the 
capacity given. Tf corn is unusually rich in grain, add .j to 10 per ct. If corn 
is unusually dry when ensiled, deduct 10 to ].") per ct. Tf \ery little grain is 
present, deduct 10 ))ci- cl. 

Proper size of the silo. — In delerniiniug the size of silo to build, 

-from KlUlcs and Meed, Mo. Hul. 1(14 and Kan. (ir. SO; and Fitch. Xebr. 
Cir. 1 



SII.AdK— SOILAdK 209 

Ili(^ diaiiu'lei* should Ix' yaufictl hy tlio iiiuouut of siUiLic 1o he fed daily. 
In the cooler pari of tlu* year at least l.-") inches, ami preferably 
2 inches, should be removed from the entire surface each day to keep it 
from spoiling, and in summer somewhat more. Knowing the number 
of animals to be fed and the amount for each daily, one can readily 
calculate how much silage will be fed daily. To use two inches daily 
from the surface, approximately the following amounts must l)e \\'(\ 
from silos of various diameters: Diameter 10 feet. 510 llis. silage: 
11 ft., 615 lbs.; 12 ft., T:^"') 11)S. ; 14 ft., 1.000 11)S. ; 16 ft., l.iiOf) lbs.; 
18 ft., l,65ri lbs.: 20 ft., 2,045 lbs.; 22 ft., 2,470 lbs.; 24 ft., 2,940 
lbs.; 26 ft.. .'>.450 ll)s. In cold weather and when tlie silage is well 
packed, a soniewhal smaller amount may be i-cniovcd daily. 

When the diameter for the desii-cd silo has been delenniued, the 
total amount of silage recpiired for any particular feeding period may 
be computed and from this the right dimensions found by referring 
to the table in the preceding article 

IT. SolI.AOE 

Soilage means supplying forage fresh fi'oni the field to aninuils in 
confinement. This system, which had been long practiced in Europe, 
was brought to attention in this country nearly 100 years ago thru the 
essays of Josiah Quincy on "The Soiling of Cattle." 

Advantages and disadvantages of soilage. — Compared with allow- 
ing animals to gather their food by grazing, soiling has the following 
advantages. (1) A larger yield, even of the grasses, is secured by 
allowing the plants nearly to mature liefore harvesting than by pas- 
turing them. (2) With a properly planned succession of soiling 
crops, an abundance of palatable feed may usually be supplied thru- 
out the season, so that the production of the animals will not decline if 
pastures become parched in midsummer. (3) None of the forage is 
wasted thru being tramped down by th(> animals or fouled with 
manure. (4) Less fencing is required. (5) In bad weather cattle 
will be more comfortable when fed soiling crops in the stable than 
when grazing. 

The chief disadvantages of soilage ai'e the greater expenditure for 
labor, seed, and fertilizer in producing the crops and for labor in 
cutting and carrying them to the animals In warm weather soilage 
will ferment and mold in a short time if left in piles. When but few 
animals are fed, the green forage may be spread thinly on the barn 
floor, where it will keep, but soilage thus handled dries out and is less 
palatable. Where a considerable quantity is harvested at one time, 
much labor may be saved bv using the mower and horse rake. Dui-inu' 



210 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



wet spells the palatabilit}' of the soilage is reduced, and it is difficult 
to harvest and cart the food to the animals without injury to the land. 
On the other hand, pastures also suffer if grazed while wet. 

The place of soilage on American farms. — It has been shown pre- 
viously in this chapter that silage is a more economical means of 
supplying succulent feed in summer than is soilage. On farms where 
too few animals are kept to prevent the molding of the surface of the 
silage as it is fed otf in summer, or where a silo is not available, soilage 
should be provided to prevent the usual midsummer shrinkage in milk 




Fig. 59.— Soilage Is Usually Less Economical than Silage 

Providing; succulent feed in summer by a succession of soiling crops is usually 
more expensive than tlie use of silage, chiefly because it requires more labor. 
(From Wisconsin Station.) 

flow with cows, and in flesh with beef cattle or sheep. Under this 
system animals may be housed in darkened stables away from the flies 
during the heated portion of the day and fed liberally wdth fresh cut 
soilage, being turned to pasture at night for exercise and grazing. 
It is also wise to supply extra green forage in the fall, if the pastures 
do not furnish plenty of feed. 

Because of the high price of labor in this country, it is not usually 
economical, in regions where good summer pastures may be provided, 
to maintain cattle in summer on soilage or silage with no pasturage. 
On high-priced land where it is desired to keep as many animals as 



SILAGE— SOILAGE 211 

possible on a given area, such a system may 1)0 the most profitable. 
In Europe, wiiere labor is relatively cheap compared Avith land, a much 
wider use can economically be made of soilage than in the United 
States. 

Crops for soilage. — Among the crops w^ell suited for soilage are the 
various legumes, such' as alfalfa, the clovers, field peas, cowpeas, and 
soybeans ; the cereals, as rye, wheat, barley, and oats ; the smaller 
grasses; and especially corn — sweet corn for early feeding and field 
corn later — and the sorghums. The adaptability of all these for soilage 
has been discussed in the preceding chapters. 

Soiling crops should not be fed until reasonably mature. Green, 
immature plants are mostly water, and often cattle cannot consume 
enough of them to secure the needed nourishment. Where cpite green 
crops must be fed, some dry forage should be supplied. Wherever 
soilage is practiced, a succession of crops must be carefully planned so 
that a continuous supply of green forage of the proper stage of 
maturity will be available over the period desired. It is helpful to 
prepare a soiling chart which shows the area of each crop to be grown, 
the date of seeding, the period of feeding, and the estimated yi(4d. 
Any such attempt will be more or less imperfect at first, but may be 
modified from growing experience and close stud}' to meet the local 
conditions. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Describe the changes that take place when green forage is ensiled. 

2. Give seven advantages of silage. 

.3. Summarize tlie suitability of various crops for silago. Wliat ones are iised 
in your locality? 

4. Discuss the importance of silage for feeding the various classes of stock. 

5. What are the advantages of summer silage compared witli soilage crops? 

6. Mention the points to be observed in filling the silo. 

7. What are the requisites of a good silo? 

8. A farmer wishes to provide corn silage for a herd of 15 Holstein cows, S 
yearling heifers. 2 idle horses, and 30 breeding ewes during a winter feeding 
period of 6 months. Wliat size of silo would you recommend ? 

9. Define soilage and state its advantages and disadvantages. 



CHAPTER XVII 

MANURIAL VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS 

Unless the plant food removed from the soil by the growth of crops 
is returned in some form, the land will sooner or later be so reduced 
in fertility that profitable croi)s cannot be grown. Already the soil in 
many once productive areas of this country has been so "mined" 
that good crops are possible only when counnercial fertilizers are 
liberally applied. In 1918 about 3,824,000 tons of eonnnercial fer- 
tilizers were sold in the South Atlantic states alone. While the use of 
commercial fertilizers is wise in some cases, in general farming they 
should be used to supplement deficiencies only after all the fertility in 
the feeding stuH's fed to the live stock has been fully utilized. 

Farm manure as a fertilizer. — Farm manure, like commercial fer- 
tilizers, is valued on the basis of the amount of nitrogen, phosphoric 
acid, and potash it contains. This is because these are the only plant 
food constituents removed from the soil by crops which need ordinarily 
be replaced. The necessary nitrogen may, as we have seen, be 
indirectly obtained from the air by growing legumes, but in practice 
much is purchased along with phosphoric acid and potash. 

Not only does farm manure supply plant food, but the vegetable or 
organic matter it contains also helps to increase the productivity of 
the soil. As this vegetable matter gradually breaks down, the acid 
products formed help dissolve and make available to plants some of 
the otherwise insoluble plant food in the soil. Furthermore, the humus 
formed from the organic matter of manure helps retain moisture, 
improves the soil texture, renders it more resistant to wind action, and 
favors chemical and bacterial action Avhicli make plant food available. 
On fields lacking in humus such crops as rye are often grown and 
turned under as green manure, for the sole purpose of increasing the 
humus content. 

Experiments have shown that the fertilizing constituents in farm 
manure have as high a value as in such high-grade fertilizers as tank- 
age, bone meal, and muriate of potash. In computing the fertilizing 
value of feeding stuffs and farm manure, we will therefore use the 
average market prices of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash in com- 

212 



MANURIAL VALCE OF FEEDING STUFFS 



21 :l 



luercial fertilizers when bought in large quantities, i.e., nitrogen 20, 
phosphoric acid 7, and potash 7 cts. per pound. 

Fertilizing constituents recovered in manure. — The animal creates 
nothing of fertilizing value, for it voids only that which it has eaten 
or drunk. Part of the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash of the 
food may be retained in the body during growth or nui}- go into the 
milk. All the rest is excreted in the urine and feces. The value of 
the manure therefore depends, first of all, on the kind of feed the ani- 




FiG. 60a. — Such Losses of Fertility Occur on Many Farms 

When manure is loosely piled under tlie eaves, heavy los>*es of fertility occur 
thru fermentation and leachinfr. Note that every hard rain will leach fertility 
from the manure pile to the ditcli in the foreground. (From Wisconsin Station.) 



mal gets. Only feeds rich in nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash 
make rich manure. 

The proportion of the total fertilizing constituents supplied in the 
feed which is recovered in the manure depends on the age and kind of 
animal. ]\Iature horses at work store no nitrogen, phosphoric acid, or 
potash, but merely repair their body tissues as they are broken down. 
Hence, they excrete all the fertilizing constituents contained in their 
feed. When animals which are nearly mature arc fattened, but little 
nitrogen or iniucral mailer is sloi'ed in llie body, over I>") jx-r el. being 



214 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



put out in the manure. Pigs fattened while still growing and storing 
nitrogen in their lean meat tissues return in the manure but 85 per ct. 
of the nitrogen in their feed. Very young animals, growing rapidly 
in bone, muscle, and body organs, will store in their body most of the 
fertilizing constituents of their feed. xVs milk is rich in nitrogen and 
mineral matter, the cow in milk returns in the manure but about 75 
per ct. of the nitrogen and 90 per ct. of the mineral matter of her feed. 
Considering the proportion of the various classes and ages of ani- 
mals on the average farm, probably about 80 per ct. of the nitrogen, 
phosphoric acid, and potash of the feed is recovered in the feces and 
urine. 




Fig. 60b. Eesult of Allowing Manure to "Waste Away 

When mamui' is allowed to waste away, as in the preceding illustration, not 
only is much of the weight of the manure lost, hut that which remains contains 
much less fertility per ton than fresh manure. The pile of corn at the left was- 
grown on a plot fertilized with manure which liad heen exposed to the weather 
over winter. The large pile at the right was grown on a plot fertilized with the 
same amount of fresh manuic. (From Wisconsin Station.) 

Fertility and manurial value of feeds. — In buying or selling feeds 
far too few farmers consider their value as fertilizers as well as their 
feeding value. The amounts of fertilizing constituents in all important 
feeds are given in Appendix Table III. For comparison, the data for 
typical feeds and animal products are given in the following table. 
The fertility value of each has been computed at the rates for nitrogen, 
phosphoric acid, and polash previously given. The last column gives 



MANURIAL VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS 



215 



the average maimrial value of the feed. This has been computed on 
the assumption that, on the average, farm animals return in the 
manure about 80 per ct. of the total fertilizing constituents in their 
feed, but that even under good management some losses occur in the 
nitrogen of the manure which reduce the amount of this constituent 
to 65 per ct. of the amount in the feed. Obviously, these manurial 
values hold good only when the manure is so cared for as to prevent as 
far as possible the losses mentioned later. 



Fertilizhig constituents 


in feeding stuffs 


and animal products 




FertilizinK oons'ituents it 

Phosphoric 
Nitrogen acid 


1,000 lbs. 
Potash 


Fertility 
value 
per ton 

Dollars 

8.00 
9.84 

9.87 
16.64 
34.51 

6.29 

11.03 

4.71 

2.20 

11.74 
8.19 

2.82 


Manurial 
value 
per ton 


CoHCcniralcs 

Dent corn 

Oats 

Wheat 


Lbs. 

16.2 
19.8 
19.8 
25.6 
70.6 

9.9 
20.5 

5.8 
3.4 

23.3 

17.7 

5.8 

12 


Lbs. 

6.9 

8.1 

8.6 

■ 29.5 

26.7 

3.1 
3.9 
2.1 
1.6 

15.5 
6.5 
1.9 
0.4 


Lbs. 

4.0 
5.6 

5.3 
16.2 
18.1 

13.6 

16.3 

15.0 

4.4 

1.8 
1.4 
1.7 
4 


Dollars 
5.43 

6.68 
6.71 


Wheat bran 


11.78 


Cottonseed meal, choice 

Roughages 

Timothy hay 


23.37 
4.44 


Red clover hay 

Oat straw 

Corn silage 


7.59 
3.43 
1 . 55 


Animals and products 




Fat pig 




Milk 


1.91 


Butter 













The fourth column shows that the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and 
potash removed from the soil in a ton of corn grain would cost about 
$8.00 if bought in commercial fertilizers. On account of its rich- 
ness in nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, the fertility value of 
a ton of wheat bran is $16.64, while that of wheat is only $9.87. 
Because the legumes usually obtain much of their nitrogen from the 
air, only a part of the fertility in a ton of clover, worth $11.03, may 
have been taken from the soil. Clover hay is 75 per ct. richer than 
timothy hay and about 2.3 times as rich as oat straw in fertility. 

Of the feeds listed, cottonseed meal has the highest fertility value, 
$34.51 per ton. This explains why millions of dollars worth of this 
feed, one of the richest and best for cattle and sheep, are annually 
applied to southern cotton fields to make another crop of cotton. 
Where such protein-rich feeds as cottonseed meal are purchased and 
fed to stock and the proper care is taken of the manure produced, a 



21G 



FKKDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



double return may be realized, the tirst from the high feeding value 
of the rich feed, and the second from the manure. With proper care 
and application, the manure resulting- from each ton of cottonseed 
meal fed would bo worth $23.37, the manurial value shown in the table, 
as surel\- as would mixed commercial fertilizer costing this amount. 
Selling fertility. — The preceding table further shows that those who 




Vic. 61. — S-WTNG THE FerTTIvITY TN FEEDING StUPFS 
Where possil)lc, the nuuuire should he drawn direetly to the fields and s])read 
each day. (From JSietylei's (Inzeftc) 

sell such crops as hay. corn, and wheat, part with more fertility 
for a given sum than do those who sell aninuils or their products. The 
farmer who sells 1,000 lbs. of clover hay, worth $6 to $10, parts with 
about as much fertility as if he had sold 1,000 lbs. of fat ox or fat pigs, 
worth $70 to $100, or more. Based on the selling price, milk carries 
considerable fertility from the farm, and butter practically none. 
Farm cr()])s may be regarded as raw products, while farm animals, 
milk', wool, butter, etc., i-epresent manufactured products. A large 
amount of raw material in the form of grass, hay. corn, etc., is put 
into animals, and the heavy waste or by-product resulting in the form 
of manure conserves most of the fertility, when carried back to the 
fields. The farmer who feeds his crops to live stock is a manufacturer 



MANURIAL VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS 217 

as well as a producer, with two possible profits instead of one, while 
his farm should lose little of its fertilit3^ The farmer who grows and 
sells grain, ha}-, and straw is selling a large amount of fertility, the 
need of which will surely be apparent as time goes on and his fields 
give smaller and smaller returns. Such a farmer is slowly but surely 
mining phosphorus and potash from his soil, which can be replaced 
only by some purchased material. 

Virgin soils as a rule contain great quantities of available fertility, 
and the pioneer farmers in America, drawing upon Nature's store, 
have given little consideration to how their crops are fed, and have not 
j'calized that they are steadily and often wastefully drawing on the 
fertility which is their principal capital. The w^estern farmer, when 
marketing corn or wheat, or the souihc-rn planter, when selling seed 
cotton, considers he is selling labor and rent of land. Earely does he 
realize that he is also selling fertility, to replace which w^ould cost a 
considerable part of all the crop brings. Rather than to reckon the 
value of his crop at the market price, he should recognize that its true 
value when sold from the farm is really the market price minus the 
value of the fertility which the crop removes from the soil. 

In Great Britain, where many of the farmers are long-period tenants, 
the manurial value of feeding stuffs is recognized by law. ^Yhen a 
tenant vacates his leasehold he is paid for the manurial value of feeds 
which he has recently purchased and fed on the farm, and, under cer- 
tain conditions, for the manurial value of grain produced on the farm 
and fed to stock. Similar provisions should Ijc drafted into farm leases 
in this country. 

Composition and value of fresh manure. — Tho the value of the 
manure produced by each class of animals varies with the nature of the 
feed supplied, it is importani to study the average composition of 
manure for each class, as given in the following table.- 

. Composition of one ton of average manure from farm animals 

Phosplioric 

Water Nitrogen acid Potash Value 

Per ct. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Dols. 

Horse manure .78 14 5 11 o 99 

Cow manure 86 12 3 9 o'oT 

Sheep manure 68 .19 7 20 c'fio 

Pig manure 87 10 7 8 3;o5 

Horse or sheep manure contains less water than that of cows or pigs, 
and these are known as "hot manures" because their low water content 
permits rapid fermentation, or heating, when stored. On the other 
hand, the voidings of the cow and pig form "cold manures," the high 

2 Adapted from Van Slyko, Fertilizers and Crops, p. 291. 



218 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



water content checking fermentation. Slieep niainire lias tiie highest 
value per ton, based on the fertility it furnishes, and pig manure the 
lowest. Mixed farm manure contains about 10 lbs. of nitrogen, 5 lbs. 
of phosphoric acid, and 10 lbs. of potash per ton. 

The total value of the manure produced annually Uy the various 
farm animals per 1,000 lbs. live weight is about as follows: horse, 
$30.70; cow, $30.51; sheep, $30.94; and pig, $40.24. 

Losses in farm manures. — AVhile manure is one of the most valuable 
products of the farm, many farmers who freely purchase commercial 









"^ 




Vjk ■''''ap-r-:.,.,^, ,^ 


r 






fjAi[ 







Fig. 62. — A Manure Shed and Pit 

When manure is i)acked solidly in siu'h a slied as tliis, with concrete found;*- 
tion, there is but little loss from fermentation and none from leaching. (From 
Hoard's Dairyman.) 



fertilizers allow much of the value of the manure produced by their 
live stock to be washed away in streams or otherwise needlessly lost. 
It is most important to realize that manure is a highly perishable 
product, and that unless proper care is taken of it over half its value 
may be lost. Plant food may be wasted thru: (1) Loss of urine, 
(2) loss by leaching, (3) loss of nitrogen by fermentation. Tho all 
the phosphoric acid is excreted in the feces, on the average over 40 
per ct. of the nitrogen and 60 per ct. of the potash voided by fai-m 
animals is in the urine. Pound for pound, the urine has a greater 



MAXIKIAL \ALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS 219 

ferliliziiiji- value than the feces, except with the pig, which voids a 
watery urine. The fertility in urine is also in solution and much more 
readily available to plants than that in the feces. Obviously, plenty 
of bedding should be used to absorb this valuable fertilizer. 

A manure pile under the eaves, against the side of the barn, or 
manure lying for months in an open ])ai'n yard, is a sight all too com- 
mon on American farms. AVlien manure is exposed 1o the leaching 
action of rains, the losses are great, even amounting to half of the total 
value in jieriods of 2 to 5 months. Unfortunately, the loss falls on the 
constituents which are most soluble and therefore most quickly avail- 
able to plants. 

Farm manure contains myriads of bacteria, molds, and yeasts, the 
inimbers often running into billions for each gram of manure. These 
organisins in general break down the complex compounds of the ma- 
nure into simpler ones, whicli are .soluble. Some of these changes are 
advantageous, as the}- make the plant food more available to crops, but 
under improper conditions of storage much of the nitrogen in the 
manure may be lost thru these fermentations. When the manure is 
dry or loosely packed, the bacteria which thrive in the presence of air 
develop profusely, causing "hot" fermentation. In this process 
there is a rapid formation of ammonia from the nitrogenous com- 
pounds of the manure, much of which passes as gas into the air. 
The strong smell whicli every farmer lias noticed in close horse stables 
is due to this escaping ammonia gas jji-oduced l)y the lireaking down 
of nitrogenous compounds in the urine. In still other changes whicli 
may take place free nitrogen gas may be formed, which is likewise 
lost into the air. When the pile of manure is well packed and is 
kept damp, these changes can not go on, but only the beneficial de- 
compositions which render the plant food more available and produce 
Avhat is termed "well-rotted manure." If the manure is very loose 
and dry, "fire fanging," may occur, when the manure becomes gray- 
ish or dusty in apjiearance. This change, which is brought about by 
certain fungi or molds, seriously injures the value of the manure. 
Phosphoric acid and potash are not lost thru fermentation, but heavy 
losses may occur thru leaching. 

Care of manure. — To prevent loss in manure, the urine should be 
saved by having tight gutters and using plenty of bedding. If pos- 
sible, the manure should be drawn directly to the fields and spread 
each day. This is not advisable, however, in winter on very sloping 
land when covered by deep snow, as much fertility may wash down 
the hill ill the spring. When manui'c can not be sjiread on the land, 
it should l)c slorcd. ])rcrrral)]y under cover, in well-packed pih's kept 



220 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

moist to prevent liot t'enneiitation. If hogs or cattle have access to 
the shed, they aid in firming the pile. It is an excellent plan to mix 
the manure from horses or sheep, which is drier and therefore called 
"hot manure," with the cattle or i)ig manure, which contains more 
water. In Euro])e manure is often stored in pits or cisterns. When 
it is necessary to lea\e manure out of doors, the pile should l)e made 
hiiili and compact, so that rains will not soak thru, and it should be 
built with the sides perpendicular and the top sloping down toward 
the center so that all rain will soak into the pile instead of draining 
ott' as from a stack of hay. It is impossible to prevent all waste in 
caring for manure, but under proper nuuiagement not over 10 to 20 
per et. of the nitrogen and practically none of the phosphoric acid 
and potash will be lost. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How is tlie iLTliliziiij,' value of feeding stufl's and farm manures computed? 

2. About what part of the fertilizing constituents do matinx* work horses void 
in the manure; fattening pigs; dairy cows? 

.3. Give examples of feeds which are rich and of others whicli are low in fer- 
tilizing constituents. 

4. What is the manurial value of a feed? 

5. A farmer who intends to fatten some steers has on his farm shelled corn, 
corn silage, and clover hay. To provide a well-balanced ration, he sells 10 tons 
of corn and buys as much cottonseed meal as he can with the proceeds. Using 
local market prices and assiuning that the cottonseed meal is worth enough more 
to him than the corn to pay for hauling, find the gain or loss in manurial value 
from the exchange. 

(i. Compare the fertility lost in selling a ton of corn and a ton of fat pigs: 
a ton of butter. 

7. What are "hof' and "cold"' manures? 

S. What is the average amount of fertility in iiii\e;l faim manure '.' 

!). How may losses occur in farm maniu'e and how sjiould manure lie cared for 
to lessen loss? 



Part III 
FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



CHAPTER XVIII 

FEEDING AND CARE OF HORSES 

I. Factors Influencing the Work Done by Horses 

While practically every farmer has horses or mules to perform work 
on the farm, comparatively few have large numbers. Perhaps for this 
reason, most of us do not realize the true rank of our horse iiulustry. 
In January, 1020, there were on the farms in the United States more 
than 20,140,000 horses and 5,450,000 mules. In spite of the coming of 
the automobile, auto-truck and tractor, the number of horses on farms 
has increased 1.5 per ct. since 1910 and the number of mules 29.5 
per ct. 

To feed these work animals costs at least $2,000,000,000 each year. 
Yet the scientihc and economical feeding of this class of live stock 
usually receives scant attention. ]Many a farmer, for example, will 
carefully determine which feed>; furnish most cheaply a well-balanced 
ration for his dairy cows. But he will continue to feed his horses the 
usual ration in his locality, such as oats and timothy hay, no matter 
how expensive these feeds may be. As is shown in Chapter XIX, by 
careful selection of feeds for horses, it is often possible to save one- 
third of the feed bill, with no injury, and in some cases even a benefit 
to the animals. 

Before a detailed study of feeds for horses and of the methods of 
feeding and care is begun, we will briefly consider the factors which 
influence the work they perform. Since 81 per ct. of our work animals 
are horses, the following discussions usually treat of the horse. How- 
ever, the same feeds may be used for mules and the same principles of 
feeding and care applied. 

Work done by horses. — In measuring work, the units used are the 
foot-pound and the foot-ton. A foot-pound is the amount of work done 
in lifting one pound one foot against the force of gravity; and a foot- 
ton the amount done in lifting one ton one foot against gravity. The 
rate at which work is performed is measured in terras of horse-power. 
A horse-power is the power required to lift 33,000 lbs. at the rate of 1 

221 



222 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

ft. per minute, or to lift 1 lb. at the rate of 38,000 ft. per minute. To 
illustrate, a horse drawing up a loaded bucket weighing lUO lbs. from 
a well 330 feet deep in one minute exerts a force equal to 1 horse- 
power. 

The w'ork which horses can do depends on their weight, muscular 
development, and endurance. On the average, a 1,000-lb. horse work- 
ing steadily 10 hours a day can develop about 0.67 to 0.83 horse power 
and do 6,600 to 8,200 foot-tons of work a day. A 1,600-lb. horse will 
produce 1.06 to 1.33 horse power and do about 10.500 to 13,200 foot- 
tons of work daily. An ox can draw as heavy a load as a horse of the 
same weight, but ordinarily at only two-thirds the speed. A man will 
do about one-fifth as much work as the average horse, tho for a minute 
or two he can exert a full horse power or even more. 

The character of the road bed is a most important factor in determin- 
ing how heavy a load a horse can draw. While only 25 to 67 lbs. of 
draft are required to haul a load of a ton (including weight of wagon) 
on a good pavement, the draft on a common earth road is 75 to 224 lbs. 

True value of feeds for work. — To be able to feed horses economic- 
ally, it is necessary to understand the true value of different feeds 
for the production of work. We have learned in Chapter III that only 
the net energy of the feed can be used to produce such external work 
as propelling the body, carrying a burden, or pulling a load. 

The most extensive investigations on the work yielded by various 
feeds are those of the German investigators, Wolff and Zuntz, Some 
of their results are presented in the following table, which shows how 
much work 1 lb. of different feeds may yield if fed to a horse already 
receiving enough to maintain his body when idle. 

Possible work from 1 Ih. of various feeds when fed to the horse 

Total Nutrients Net Possible 

Crude digesti1)le required for nutrients work from 

Feeding 8tuf¥ fiber nutrients mastication remaining 1 lb. of 

and digestion feed 

Per ct. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Ft.-tons 

Corn 1.7 0.785 0.0S2 0.703 607.7 

Linseed cake 9.4 O.GOO 0.125 0.565 488.4 

Oats 10.3 0.615 0.124 0.491 424.4 

Meadow hay 26.0 0.391 0.209 0.182 157.3 

Clover hay' 30.2 0.407 0.239 0.168 145.2 

Carrots .\ 1.6 0.113 0.021 0.092 79.5 

Wheat straw 42.0 0.181 0.297 -0.116 -100.3 

Fiber, the woody material of plants, is less digestible than the other 
nutrients and, moreover, much energy is used up in masticating and 
digesting feeds containing much of it. Therefore, the higher a feed 
is in fiber, the less work it will .yield per pound. While each pound of 
corn yields 607.7 foot-tons of work, meadow or clover hay produces 



FEEDING AND CARE OF HORSES 



223 



only one-fourth as much, and more energy is actually spent in digesting 
and masticating wheat straw than it supplies. Hence, it has a negative 
value for producing work, tho it may aid in keeping a horse warm. 
Carrots yield but a small amount of work per pound, due to their 
water}^ nature. It is clear from this table that the harder a horse 
works, the greater must be the proportion of concentrates, such as corn, 
and oats, in his ration, and the smaller the proportion of roughages, as 
hay and straw. 

Types of work performed by the horse. — It is evident that the horse 
at work must receive a larger supply of nutrients than when idle, and 
that the amount needed will depend on the severity of the work done. 
Let us then consider what 
types of work the horse per- 
forms. His work usually con- 
sists of a more or less complex 
combination of the following 
simple kinds : ( I ) Locomotion, 
or traveling along a level 
course without a load; (2) 
raising the bod}^ with or with- 
out a load, against the force 
of gravity in ascending a 
grade; (3} carrying a load; 
(4) draft, or hauling a load. 
A horse drawing a load up a 
hill combines all of these types. 
He is (1) advancing and at the 
same time (2) raising his body. 
Likewise, he is (3) carrying 

the harness and (4) hauling the load. In descending the hill the 
horse will be called upon to perform even a fifth type of labor, brac- 
ing himself to prevent too rapid a descent. 

The amount of nutrients required in each of these types of work has 
been determined in careful experiments. However, the results are of 
theoretical rather than practical interest, for the work of most horses 
varies greatly from day to day and is usually of a complex nature, 
difficult to divide into these simple types. All that can commonly be 
done is to estimate whether the horse is performing light, medium, or 
heavy work, and then compute a ration which meets the standard for 
this degree of labor. As w^e have seen in Chapter VI, normally the 
carbohydrates and fats furnish the energy used in producing work, and 
no more protein is usually broken down during work than during rest. 
Hence, the nutrient requirements of horses at work resemble those of 




Ftg. 63. — Tlie conformation of the draft 
liorse, developed by years of breeding, fits 
him to haul heavy loads at a relatively 
slow pace. 



2L>4 FKKDS AND FKKDIXd. AliiniXJED 

lyUi'iiing iiuiiiials. Willi bulli I hcsc classes, ul'ter giuwlli is coiupk-U'd 
the ration may consist largely of carbohydrates and fat, with only 
sufficient protein to ensure complete digestion of the ration. 

It is not necessary, and is often not advisable nor economical, to 
furnish as nnu-li digestible crude protein iu the ration as stated in the 
Wolff-Lehnuinn standard. (See Ai)pendix Table IV.) Horses at 
hard work have been fed for considerable i)eriods wilhoul hai'iu on 
rations haviii<>- nutritive ratios as wide as 1:28.0 However, as shown 
on Page 47, when the nutritive ratio is wider than 1 : 8.0 or 1 : 10.0. the 
diu'estibility of the ration is decreased and feed is wasted. 

Feeding standard for horses. — From a study of American and 
European investiuations, the following standards have been prepared 
(given also in Appendix Table V), which state in simple terms the 
nutrient requirements of various classes of horses: 

Morrison fcediiuj sicnulatrls for horses 



Per (lay per 1.000 


lbs. live weiEflit 






Dry 
Hint tin- 


Discstible Totiil 
irudi' digestible 
protein mitrieuts 


Nutritive 
ratio 


Idle horses 


Lbs. 
13.0-18.0 
1.5.0-20.0 
l(i.0-21.0 
18.0-22.0 


Lbs. Lbs. 
0.8-1.0 7.0- 0.0 
1.0-1.2 i !).()-11.0 
1.2-l.r. 11.0-13.0 
1.5-18 1 13.0-1.5.0 


1: 
8.0-0.0 


Horses at lijiht work 

Horses at medium work... 
Horses at hard work 


8. 0-8. .5 
7.8-8.3 
7.0-8.1 



It will l)e noted that while only 4 to 5 lbs. more dry matter is advised 
for the horse at hard work than for one which is idle, he requires about 
G lbs. more total digestible nutrients. This means that the idle horse 
can ])e maintained on such feeds as hay alone, which is low in total 
digestible nutrients, and furnishes but relatively little net energy. 
However, the ration for the hard-worked horse must be more. concen- 
trated in character, containing a much smaller proportion of hay or 
other roughage. As the work becomes harder, a slightly narrower 
nutritive ration is advisable. The amount of protein here stated is the 
minimum advisable, and considerably more may be supplied if protein- 
rich feeds are lower in price than carbonaceous feeds. 

Influence of speed on work. — The horse is at his l)est for drawing 
loads when movini; at a rate of 2 to 2.5 miles per hour. If held to a 
slowei' pace and especially if urged to nu)ve faster, his efficieiu'y 
decreases. When worked at the rate of 11.25 miles per hour, he 
accomplishes less than one-tenth of the amount of work of which he is 
capable. When trotting with no load the horse expends nearly twice 
as much energy per mile of travel as when walking. Among the rea- 
sons wh}' more energy is required to perform a certain amount of work 



FEEDING AND CARE OF HORSES 225 

at a fast pace arc: (1) In liolliny or galloping the rise and i'all of 
the body are much greater than in walUing. Energy is wasted in these 
movements, and hence a smaller amount is available for onward move- 
ment. (2) At a rapid pace the work of the heart is increased, the 
temperature rises, and much heat is lost thru the evaporation of water 
from the skin and lungs in the el'fort to keep the bod}' temperature 
normal. The proportion of the food which produces heat is thus 
increased, while less can be converted into work. 

To keep mail-coach horses, which were pushed at top speed, in con- 
dition, the}' could often be Avorked but one hour a day, traveling only 
eight miles even on good roads. While a pound of additional load 
makes but little difference to a draft horse, with running horses the 
requirement of speed makes it necessary that the weight carried (rider 
and saddle) be as small as possible. An ounce of additional loading 
may make a difference of a yard or more in half a mile of running. 

Influence of grade. — In going up a grade, the horse must not only 
propel his body and the load over the ground but must also raise them 
against the force of gravity. In ascending a grade of 10.7 ft. in 100 ft. 
the horse expends three times as much energy per mile as when travel- 
ing on a level road. The steeper the grade, the gre^iter the energy 
required. 

On the other hand, in going down a gentle incline, owing to the 
force of gravity less energy is required than on a level road, which 
results in a saving of nutrients. If the grade is steeper than 10 feet 
in 100, however, the horse must expend energy in bracing himself and 
the load against a too rapid descent and hence uses as much as when 
traveling on the level. On a still steejier downward slope more energy 
is expended than on a level course. Obviously, a great saving of feed 
may be effected by a proper use of wagon brakes in a hill}' country. 

II. Preparation of Feed ; AVater ; Salt 

Chaffing hay. — With horses at ordinary farm work, which have 
abundant time to chew their feed thoroly, cutting or chal^ng hay prob- 
ably does not result in sufficient saving to warrant the expense. How- 
ever, in stables where large numbers of horses are kept, the hay is 
frequently chaffed. Somewhat less is then wasted, especially if it is of 
rather poor quality, and dust may be easily laid by sprinkling with 
water. The grain allowance is often mixed with part of the chaffed 
hay, which forces the horses to eat the grain more slowly and chew it 
more thoroly. A common practice in Europe is to mix cut straw with 
chaffed hay, more straw thus being eaten than would otherwise be the 
ease. 



226 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

Grinding grain. — Where oats are mixed with chatVed hay, there is uo 
advantage in crushing the grain if the horses have good teeth. It is 
also doubtful if it paj'S to crush or grind oats when fed alone, except 
perhaps for hard-worked horses which have but little time in the stable, 
or for those which bolt their grain or have poor teeth. All small, hard 
grains, such as wheat, barley, r^-e, and kafir, should be ground or, bet- 
ter, rolled. Corn is preferably fed on the cob. 

Soaking or cooking grain. — When such grains as wheat and barley 
cannot conveniently be rolled or ground, they should be soaked before 
feeding, to soften the kernels. Ear corn that is so dry and tlinty as to 
injure the horses' mouths should also be soaked or ground. 

The custom of cooking even a small portion of the feed given to 
horses has almost ceased, since experiments have shown that uncooked 
feed gives just as good results. 

Watering the horse. — Extensive tests have shown that horses may be 
watered before, after, or during a meal without interfering with the 
digestion or absorption of the food eaten. Therefore, individual cir- 
cumstances and convenience should determine the time of watering, 
but when a system is once adopted it should be rigidly adhered to, for 
a change from one system to another lessens the appetite. A horse long 
deprived of water or having undergone severe exertion should be 
watered before being fed, but it is dangerous to allow a horse much 
w'ater when very warm. A moderate drink taken slowly will refresh 
him and do no harm. 

About 10 to 12 gallons, or 100 lbs., of water should be provided daily 
for each horse. In warm weather and when at hard work, horses will 
drink more water than at other times, owing to the greater evaporation 
of water from the body. The nature of the feed also affects the quan- 
tity of water drunk. 

Salt. — The horse shows great fondness for salt and thrives best when 
regularly supplied with it. A reasonable allowance is two ounces per 
head daily. 

III. Hints on Feeding and Caring for Horses 

General hints on caring for horses. — There is great truth in the 
Arab saying, "Kest and fat are the greatest enemies of the horse." 
Regular exercise or work is necessary for health and a long period of 
usefulness. A mature horse should travel not less than 5 to 6 miles 
daily and the highly-fed colt should have abundant exercise. When- 
ever a horse is not working, reduce the grain, even to one-half, to 
avoid digestive troubles. 

To maintain h(>alth, horses should be housed in well-ventilated quar- 



FEEDING AND CARE OF HORSES 



227 



tors {111(1 be i)i-ot<'cted from drafts. Previous to 1836 the annual loss of 
horses iu the French army was enormous. When the stables Avere 
enlarged and properly ventilated the loss was reduced to one-seventh 
the former figures. A cool, well-ventilated stable is far preferable to 
warm, close quarters. 

It is important to blanket the horse in cold weather whenever his 
work ceases and he is forced to stand in the cold for even a short time. 
Tlioro and careful grooming is necessary to remove the solid matter 
left on the animal's coat when the perspiration evaporates, and to keep 
the pores open and the skin healthy. This should be done with a dull 
currj'comb, a brush being used on the tender head and legs. The horse 





^yi 





Fig. 64. — Speed Decreases the "Work that can be Performed 

A pound of additional load makes but little difference to a draft horse, but 
with the race horse the load must be made as light as possible. (From Western 
Horseman.) 

will rest much more comfortably after a hard day 's work if groomed 
at night. Bedding the stall well is just as important. 

The good horseman always cares for the teeth of his charges and 
sees that no sharp points and ragged edges prevent proper chewing of 
the food. He also sees that the collar and harness fit well and that the 
horses' feet are properly shod. He makes any change in the ration 
gradually, for a sudden change may bring on colic. In starting the 
day's work he gradually warms the horse to his work, so that his collar 
will be shaped to his shoulders, his muscles in proper trim, his bowels 
relieved, and breathing and heart action quickened before he is put to 
extreme effort. At the end of a trip or the day's work he likewise 
cools his horse off gradually before returning to the stable. 

The work horse. — The regularity of work, feeding, and rest usually 
brings a long life of usefulness to the work horse. In the previous 
paragraphs we have discussed the principles of feeding and caring for 



2'_'S I-'1-;KI)S AM) KKI'.DINd. A I'.i; 1 1 )( i Kl) 

llic work Ijur.sc. Tlir iiiiioiiiil u1" i'ccd nccessai'v wiJl (Ic])i'ik1 on llic size 
of the horse and the nature and severity of the work. As a rule the 
total allowance of grain and hay should be from 2 to 2.5 lbs. daily per 
100 lbs. of horse. Horses at medium to hard work will need 0.7 to 1.4 
lbs. of grain per 100 lbs. live weight. The amount of grain for each 
horse will depend on whether he is an easy or hard keeper. In the 
luoniiiig feed a small amoiiiil of hay and not over one-third llie daily 
allowance of grain. .Many feed one-third the grain at morning, noon, 
and niglil, res])eetively, Iho the mid-day meal is sometimes omitted 
with horses on the street all day. No roughage need be fed at noon, 
most of it being fed at night. To avoid digestive troubles it is im- 
jierative that the allowance of grain for horses at hard work be 
i-educed on idle days to no more than 70 per ct. of the amount usually 
fed. It is best to feed on such days in place of just grain, a mixture 
of two-thirds grain and one-third bran. 

On coming to the stable at noon, the work horse should have a drink 
of fresh, cool water, care being taken, if he is warm, that he does not 
drink too rapidly, or too much. Before going to work he should be 
watered again. If possible, an hour should be given for the mid-daj^ 
meal and the harness removed. "When the horse comes in after the 
day's labor, give him a drink, unharness at once, and when the sweat 
has dried brush him well. 

Wintering the farm horse. — The farm horse when idle during the 
winter may be economically wintered wholly, or in part, on roughages. 
Such feeds as the refuse stems from clover or alfalfa ha}' Mdiich has 
been fed to dairy cattle or fattening cattle or sheep can often be fed 
wdth advantage to such horses. It is preferable to turn idle horses out 
daily into a lot, protected from the wind, rather than keep them closely 
confined. At shedding time, feed some grain even to idle horses. 
Light grain feeding should begin a few weeks before the spring work 
starts, for horses are soft after a winter of idleness. 

The mule. — It is often stated that mules require less feed than horses 
to do a given amount of work, but there appears to be no foundation 
for this statement. At 3 years of age, when shedding his milk teeth, 
the mule is especially susceptible to digestive disorders. At other times 
he is an excellent feeder, as a rule being more sensible in eating and 
less likely to gorge himself than the horse, and hence less subject to 
colic or founder. The mule is not particular in his taste and consumes 
roughages which the horse will refuse. He also endures hot weather 
better, and because of the peculiar shape of the hoof and its thick, 
strong wall and sole is less subject than the horse to lameness of the 
foot. However, the lack of weight and the small size of his foot some- 



FEEDING AND CARE OF HORSES 229 

what unfit the mule for heavy draft in the city, as he does not get a good 
hold on the pavements. 

Tho the mule will endure more neglect than the horse, good care and 
feed will prove profitable. For feeding the mule the same feeds are 
available as for the horse, and the same principles apply in suiting the 
feed to the size of the animal and the severity of the w'ork performed. 

Fattening horses. — As the markets demand draft horses in high flesh, 
in certain districts their fattening has become an important industry. 
The horses are usually purchased in the fall after farm work is over 
and gradually accustomed to a heavy grain ration, getting all they will 
clean up when on full feed. At this time some of the heaviest feeders 
will consume nearly twice as much as when at hard work, or about 
2 lbs. of grain for every 100 lbs. live weight. The chief concentrates 
used are corn and oats, often with moderate allowances of such protein- 
rich feeds as wheat bran, linseed meal, or cottonseed meal added to 
balance the ration. Clover or alfalfa hay is commonly fed, for these 
hays are much superior to timothy hay. In addition, silage of good 
quality may be advantageously fed. x\t the Illinois Station ^ a ration 
of 8.6 lbs. corn, 8.6 lbs. oats, 2.4 lbs. wheat bran, 0.4 lb. oil meal, and 
13.7 lbs. clover hay gave excellent results in fattening horses. A most 
successful ration for 1,450-lb. horses at the Pennsylvania Station ^ was 
12.3 lbs. shelled corn, 1.4 lbs. cottonseed meal, 16.9 lbs. corn silage, 
and 10.5 lbs. mixed hay. Horses thus fattened require about the same 
amount of feed as fattening cattle for 100 lbs. gain in weight. 

Formerly the horses were usually allowed no exercise, great care then 
being necessary to avoid digestive troubles and to keep their legs from 
becoming stocked. Now many feeders allow the horses to run in pad- 
docks. Due to the forced feeding, surprising gains are often secured. 
Instances are reported where horses have gained 4 lbs. or even more 
per head daily for periods of about 2 months. While at present horses 
must be thus fattened to bring top prices, such rapid and excessive 
fattening is of little benefit and may even be injurious. AVhen put to 
hard work, the horse quickly loses much of the soft flesh gained by such 
forcing. 

Feeding the carriage and saddle horse. — Style and action are of the 
greatest importance with these horses, economy of feeding standing 
second. Good drivers in this country still assert that the oat-fed horse 
exhibits mettle as from no other feed. Tho oats easily excel any other 
single grain or concentrate, there are numerous instances in which a 
properly combined concentrate mixture has given just as good results, 
as is shown in the following chapter. From 8 to 10 ll)s. of oats or 

lObrccht, 111. Bui. 141. = Coclicl, Pciin. Bui. 117. 



230 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



their equivalent, divided into 3 feeds, should suffice for concentrates, 
the evening meal being the largest. In case the horse is at all con- 
stipated, bran should be fed, dry or as a mash. The hay is usually 
fed long, for the carriage horse has ample time for his meals. From 
10 to 12 lbs. of hay is a liberal allowance, bringing the total ration 
within 18 to 22 lbs. The carriage horse must be trim in body and so 
cannot consume much bulky feed, yet some roughage is always neces- 
sary. With this class of horses the feeder must also guard against 




Fig. 65.— Profit-Making Brood Mares and Foals 

A team of such brood mares would bring added profits to many farms where 
no colts are now raised. They will not only raise profitable foals but will also 
do no small part of the farm work. (From. Breeder's Gazette.) 

feeding too large amounts of such laxative feeds as clover and alfalfa 
hay or bran. Carriage horses are usually overfed and exercised ir- 
regularly or too little, and mainly for these reasons their period of 
satisfactory service is often brief. On days when they are not driven, 
the usual amount of roughage may be fed but the amount of grain 
should be reduced. 

Feed and care of the brood mare. — Many farmers who raise no colts 
would find it i)rofital)le to keep a good team of brood mares to do part 
of the work and also to raise colts each year. The brood mare must, 



FEEDING AND CARE OF PIOKSES 231 

however, have proper feed, care and management. Recent statistics 
show that only GO per ct. of the brood mares that are bred each year 
produce living foals ; this enormous loss is largely due to neglect and 
carelessness. Idleness must be avoided. Mares which work regu- 
larly are more cei'tain to bring good foals than idle ones, yet judg- 
ment must always be used in working them. Pulling too hard, back- 
ing heavy loads, wading thru deep snow or nuid, or other over- 
exertion is dangerous. When not worked, the mare should be turned 
out daily for exercise. As foaling time approaches, the work should 
be lightened, and preferably discontinued 3 days to a week before 
foaling. When laid oft', the mare should still be allowed exercise. 
Mares heavy in foal are apt to be cross and quarrelsome, but they 
should always be handled gently. 

Feeding a working brood mare is simpler than feeding an idle one 
The essentials are a well-balanced ration of good-quality feeds, con- 
taining a liberal supply of protein, lime, and phosphorus, which are 
needed for the growth of the fetus. An abundance of these nutrients 
is especially needed by pregnant mares that have not yet finished their 
own growth, and those that are suckling foals, for there is then a 
double draft on the motiiers. All feeds should be free from dust, 
mold, or decay, which might cause abortion. ]Mares used only for 
breeding purposes do well without grain when on nutritious pasture. 
With insufficient pasture and in winter some grain should be given. 
The feed should not be concentrated in character but should have 
considerable bulk or volume. The bowels should be kept active thru 
a proper combination of such feeds as bran, linseed meal, roots, etc. 

Gestation period and foaling time. — The average period of gesta- 
tion for the mare is about 31 months, or 340 days, tho it may varj^ 
quite widely. Shortly before foaling the grain allowance should be 
decreased and laxative feeds more freely used. To avoid infection 
which may cause navel ill and joint disease, the stall in which the 
mare is to foal should be thorol}^ cleaned and disinfected. The mare 
should be given a half bucket of water before foaling, and when on 
her feet again she will need a drink of water or, better, of gruel made 
from half a pound of fine oatmeal in half a bucket of lukewarm water. 
A light feed of bran is good for the first meal and this may be fol- 
lowed by oats, or by equal parts by bulk of corn and bran. After 
foaling the mare should be confined for a few days, her ration being 
simple and not too abundant. With favorable conditions, after 4 or 
5 days she may be turned to pasture, and in about 2 weeks, or even 
before if work is urgent and the mare has fully recovered, she may go 
back to light work. 

Only the <|uick-maturing draft filly should under any circum- 



2:^2 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

stances be bred as a 2-year-old ; all others when past three. Altho 
the natural and customary foaling time is in the spring, when the 
mare must do a hard season's work or she fails to get in foal from 
spring service she may be bred to foal in the fall. 

The foal. — The thrifty, well-fed foal should make more than half 
its entire growth during its first year. If stunted during this time, 
rarely will it reach full size. It is therefore of the greatest importance 
that the foal start life full of vigor and be kept growing thriftily. 
Immediately after birth it should take a good drink of the colostrum, 
or first milk, of the dam. This natural purgative removes the fecal 
matter which accuuuilatcs in the alimentary canal before birth. 
Otherwise, a dose of castor oil or a rectal injection is necessary. On 
account of the great danger from navel and joint disease, the stump 
of the navel cord should be carefully disinfected. 

If the dam does not supply the proper amount of milk, feed should 
be given her which will stimulate the milk flow. Good pasture grass 
is, of course, the best, but in its absence a liberal allowance of grain 
should be fed. On the other hand, an oversupply of milk or milk too 
rich in fat may cause indigestion in the foal. The dam's ration 
should then be reduced and some of her milk drawn, the foal beuig 
allowed the first portion, which is the poorest in fat. 

Feeding the foal. — By placing the feed box low, when 3 or 4 weeks 
old the foal will begin nil)l)ling from the mother's supply and will 
soon acquire a taste for grain. The earlier the foals so learn to eat, 
the more independent they become, and the mare will then be able 
to do more work. Crushed oats or oatmeal, with bran, are excellent 
feeds, as is a mixture of 4 parts of crushed corn, 3 of bran, and 1 of 
linseed meal. Colts should be given good clover, alfalfa, or other 
legume hay as soon as they will eat it, and all the clean, pure water 
they want. Watchfulness should always detect the first appearance 
of such ailments as constipation or diarrhea. In all such troubles the 
food for both dam and foal should at once be lessened, since nothing 
assists Nature more than reducing the work of the digestive tract. 

If the dam cannot furnish enough milk for the foal, cow's milk is 
the best substitute. The poorer the milk is in butter fat the better, 
for mare's milk contains only about 1.1 per ct. fat. Should the mare 
die or have no milk, the foal may with proper care be raised on cow's 
milk modified by the addition of sugar and lime water. 

When the mare is worked, the foal should not follow the dam but 
should be left in a cool, dark stall during the day, where it will be safe 
and not bothered by flies. The mare should be brought to the barn to 
suckle the colt in the middle of the forenoon and afternoon. Allow 
the mare to cool oft', and perhaps draw some of the milk by hand 



FEEDma AND CARE OF HORSES 233 

before turning her into the stall with the foal. Brood mares at work 
and nursing strong foals should be heavily fed to sustain a good milk 
flow. If the mare is worked during the day, it is well to turn both 
dam and foal onto grass pasture at night, and in addition feed a 
liberal allowance of grain. 

When dams and foals are running at pasture, a pen should be made 
in the pasture near where the horses are inclined to loiter, building 
it so high that the mares will not try to jump it, and with sufficient 
space from the ground to the bottom rail to. allow the foals to pass 
under. Put in a handy gate, then an ample feed trough. After the 
mares have eaten together in the pen a few times the foals will visit 
this "creep" regularly after their dams are shut out. To induce the 
dams to loiter about, keep a large lump of rock salt near by and occa- 
sionally give a feed of oats at the pen. If flies torture the foal, it is 
better to confine the mare and foal in a darkened stall during the day 
and turn to pasture only at night. 

Weaning'. — At from -i to 6 months of age, the foal should be weaned. 
AVhen the mare is bred soon after foaling, or if for any reason the 
dam and foal are not doing well, it is best to wean comparatively 
early. On the other hand, if the mother has a good flow of milk and 
her services are not needed, the foal may be allowed to suckle 6 
months. If the foal has been fed increasing quantities of grain as it 
developed, weaning will cause little, if any, setback to either dam or 
foal. In parting dam and foal keep them well separated, else all 
must be done over again. The grain ration of the mare should be 
reduced till she is dried off. 

The education of the colt should not be postponed until it is sought 
to "break" him as a 3-year-old, and then attempt to bring the inde- 
pendent animal under man's guidance all at once. The young foal 
should be taught to lead at the halter, stand tied in the stall, and 
display proper stable manners. 

After weaning. — The foal should be kept growing vigorously after 
weaning by an ample allowance of feed. To make good bone and 
strong muscle, feeds rich in protein, calcium, and phosphorus should 
be chosen. Nothing is superior to bluegrass or other good pasture, 
and oats. Among the concentrates, wheat bran, cottonseed meal, lin- 
seed meal, buckwheat middlings, wheat middlings, soybeans, cowpeas, 
and Canada field peas are rich in protein, which goes to build muscle, 
and in phosphorus, needed in building the skeleton. All the legume 
hays — alfalfa, clover, cowpea, etc. — are rich in calcium. A combina- 
tion of sucli concentrates and roughages as these should furnish 
abundant bone- and muscle-forming material. Corn, barley, kafir, 
milo, and cmnier may l)c used -as jjavt of the ration, when properly 



234 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

balanced by protein-rich feeds. When fed large amounts of alfalfa 
bay, colts Avill relish a little timoth}' or prairie hay, straw, or corn 
fodder occasionally. If maxiinuiu growth is desired it will be neces- 
sary to feed some grain even on good pasture. The .young horse which 
is not developing the proper skeleton may be fed substances especially 
rich in phosphorus and calcium, such as 2 or 3 ounces daily of tankage 
containi]ig ground Ijouc, or 1 ounce daily of gi-ound bone or ground 
rock phosphate (floats). 

Cost of raising horses. — According to estimates received by the 
United States Dei)artmcnt of Agriculture from 10,000 farmers in 
various parts of the I"^nitcd States, the average cost of raising colts 
to the age of 3 years, under pre-war conditions, was $1 04.06. Deduct- 
ing the value of the work done before the third year, the net cost was 
.$96.54. The average selling price of the colts Avhen three years old 
was $136.17. About 54 per ct. of the total cost of raising the colt 
was for feed, 16 per ct. for care and shelter, and the remainder for 
the service fee of the stallion, time lost by brood mare, veterinary 
services, and miscellaneous expenses. The cost varied quite widely in 
different sections of the country, being highest in the East. 

Cost of horse labor. — The cost of horse labor is a matter of great 
interest and importance to all farmers, especially at the present time 
when tractors are competing with horses as sources of draft power. 
Cooper" found that under pre-v/ar conditions the average costs of 
keeping a horse a year on certain Illinois farms were as follows : 
$68.75 for feed and bedding, $13.99 for labor in feeding and caring 
for the horse, $7.90 for interest on the capital invested in the horse, 
$4.95 for interest, depreciation, and taxes on stable, $3.82 for use of 
equipment, $.86 for shoeing, and $5.62 for miscellaneous items, includ- 
ing depreciation of the horse and A^terinary sei'vices. This brought 
the gross cost to $105.89. Allowing a credit of $5.24 for the manure 
produced (too small a credit), made the net cost $100.65. These horses 
worked on the average 1.053 hours a year and Avere fed on the average 
4,500 lbs. of concentrates (practically all corn and oats) and 1.540 
lbs. of hay. In addition, 2,684 lbs. of other roughage (straw and 
fodder) Avas fed or used for bedding, and the horses Avere pastured 
on the average 148 days. The average cost of horae labor per hour 
Avas 9.56 cents. Under present conditions, tho some of the expenses of 
keeping horses are higher, the net cost of horse labor on these farms is 
probably not materially higher than this, if a fair credit is alloAved for 
the A-aluc of the manure produced. 

The stallion. — Nothing so Aatal to the Avcll-being of the slallion is 

= U. S. D. A. Bui. 560. 



FEEDING AND CAKE OF HOHSES 2:\b 

so commonly neglected as is proper exercise. The best exercise is 
honest work: there is no better advertisement of a stallion than letting 
him be seen at work on the road or farm. Even dnring the breeding 
season a half day's work regnlarly is benciicial. When real work is 
impossible he sho\ihl travel on Ihe road at least .") mih>s daily. 

The raticui of Ihe stallion should consist of Hi'st class, wholesome 
feeds, supplying ami)le |)r()1ein and mineral matter foi- thrift and 
vigoi-. The choice of feedinti' stuffs will depend on the i)articnlar 
locality, the same i)rincii)les ai^pl^ing as in the case of the work hor.se. 
The following concentrates are well-suited to feed with timothy hay or 
l^rairie hay: oats: oats 4 parts, corn 6 parts, and l)ran 3 parts by 
weight: oats 4 parts, corn 6 parts, and linseed meal 1 ]nirt ; corn 7 
parts, bran .3 parts, linseed meal 1 part. When some alfalfa or clover 
is fed, a smaller proportion of prolein-rich concentrates is needed. 

Xo si)eeific directions as to the total amonnt of feed re(|uired can 
be given, since this depends on the exercise the animal gets and 
whether he is a "hard" or "easy" keeper. A safe rnle is to keep the 
stallion in good flesh, bnt not "hog fat," for this will in.jnre his breed- 
ing i)owers. Most horsemen advise that in the breeding season he be 
kept gaining just a bit, rather than be allowed to nin down in flesh. 
While some recommend feeding 3 times a day, 4 is preferred by others. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Define foot-pound, foot-ton, and horse-power. 

2. Compare tlie amounts of work possible fiom 1 lb. each of corn, oats, cloxer 
ha.v, and wheat straw. 

3. What four types of work does a horse do? 

4. Compute the cheapest satisfactory ration you can from feeds available 
locally for a 1,500-lb. horse at medium work. Use tlie method illustrated in 
Chapter VIII in selecting the cheai)est feeds. 

5. What are the effects of speed and of grade on tlie energy required for a 
given amount of work ? 

(i. Discuss the vahie of chaffing hay, grinding grain, and soaki^ig or cooking 
grain for horses. 

7. When should a horse be watered? 

8. Discuss the feeding of work horses. 

9. How should idle farm horses be wintered? 

10. What feeds are chiefly used for fattening horses? 

11. Mention some important points to be observed in feeding and caring lor 
carriage' and saddle horses. 

12. Briefly discuss the feed and care of the brood mare. 

13. How would you feed a foal before and after weaning? 

14. Discuss the feed and care of stallions. 



CHAPTER XIX 

FEEDS FOR HORSES 

I. Carbonaceous Concentrates 

in most localities the usual ration for horses is restricted to but 
one or two kinds of grain with no more variety in the ronyhages. 
Due to custom and prejudice many insist that these particular feeds 
are by far the most economical and satisfactory ones which can be 
fed. Yet in traveling from one district or country to another we find 
a large number of feeds all successfully used for horses. In the 
northern Mississippi valley the ration is quite generally corn and 
oats, while in the South corn is the chief concentrate, with dried corn 
leaves, legume hay, and other roughages. On the Pacific coast crushed 
barley is the common grain used, with hay from the cereals. In 
Europe various oil cakes and beans are often fed. In Arabia, Persia 
and Egypt barley is the only grain, Avhile in sections of India, a kind 
of pea, called gram, is the usual food. In some districts horses are fed 
such unusual feeds as the leaves of limes and grapevines, the seeds 
of the carob tree, bamboo leaves, and dried fish. 

As further shown in this chapter, a long list of feeds are well- 
suited to horses. Hence, to feed these animals economically, due atten- 
tion must be given to the prices of the various feeds which are locally 
available, and a combination selected which will maintain them in good 
condition at a minimum expense. 

Oats. — This grain, so keenly relished by horses, is the standard with 
which all other concentrates are compared. Oats are the safest of 
all feeds for the horse, due to the hull, which, tho furnishing little 
nutriment, gives the grain such bulk that not enough can be eaten 
at one time to cause digestive trouble from gorging. Oats form a 
loose mass in the stomach, which is easily digested, while such heavy 
feeds as corn tend to pack, causing colic. It does not pay to crush 
or grind oats except for horses with poor teeth, for foals, and possibly 
for horses worked extremely hard. New or musty oats should be 
avoided, as they may cause colic. 

Substitutes for oats. — Due to the widespread demand, oats are 
quite commonly so high in price that they are not an economical feed. 
Fortunately, both science and practice show that other single grnins oi- 



FEEDS FOR HORSES 



237 



mixtures of couceiitiates may be substituted "with no detrimental 
effects. The Arab horse, so renowned for mettle and endurance, is 
fed no oats, but chiefly barley. After experiments covering 35 years 
with over 30,000 horses, Lavalard, the great French authority on the 
feeding of horses, concluded that other feeds could be substituted for 
oats with a great saving in cost of feed and without lowering the 
efficiency of the horses. The many grains and by-products which ma}' 
be used in place of oats are discussed in the following pai-agraplis. 
From the data there given one can easily determine what feeds are 




Fig. 66. — Oats are Unexcelled for Carrlvge or Saddle Horses 

Wliile oats excel any other single grain or concentrate for such horses, a proper 
combination of other concentrates -will give just as satisfactory results. 

most economical for him to use, considering the local prices. In sub- 
stituting other feeds for oats, due care must be taken to balance the 
ration to meet the feeding standards, as given on Page 224. 

Indian corn. — Next to oats, Indian corn is the grain most com- 
monly used for horses in America. ]\Iillions of horses and mules 
derive their strength from this grain, never knowing the taste of 
oats. Because it costs less and has a higher feeding value than oats 
per 100 lbs., it is extensively used where large numbers of horses must 
be fed econnniifally. As corn is a heavy, highly-concentrated feed, 
care must be taken to limit the amount fed to the needs of the animal. 



238 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

AVlicn (.'oni ioniis a large ])ai-t oi' the eoiieentrate allowance, the rati(tii 
should be balanced by eoneeutrates or roughages rich in protein and 
mineral matter, in which this grain is deficient. AYith legnime hay, 
which supplies the lacking protein and ash, for roughage, corn may be 
successfully fed as the only concentrate to mature horses at general 
farm work. Such an unbalanced ration as corn and timothy or 
prairie hay, all feeds low in protein, is not satisfactory. This is shown 
by tlie following results secured at the Kansas Station ' with l,ir)()-lb. 
artillery horses, performing more severe labor than the average farm 
liorse. 

Corn (Did carho)iaccous hay requires supplement 



Lot I 


Average ration 




Gain or loss 
in weight 

Lbs. 


Nutritive 
ratio 


D 

] 


rtily cost of 
feed ])er 
1,000 lbs. 

live weight 
Cents 


Oats, ]:; 


! ll)s. rrairie liay, 14 lbs. 




l(i.3 


1:7.0 






20..] 


Lot II 
















Sliell.'d 


coin, 12 ll)s. Prairie liay. 


U 


lbs. —2!). .-5 


1:11 ..-> 






17. .5 


Lot III 
















Shelled 


eoni, (i His. 














Wheat 
Linseed 


Iiian, :> lbs. 
meal, 1 11). Prairie bay, 


14 


lbs. ..3.9 


1:8.4 






10.7 



In winter, when the weather was cold and the work moderate, 
there was no apparent difference between the horses in Lots I and II. 
However, as the weather grew warmer and the work more severe, the 
horses in Lot II, fed the unbalanced ration of corn and prairie hay, lost 
weight, tho their endurance, wind and spirit were not injured. The 
well-balanced ration fed Lot III was fully as satisfactory as the oat 
ration and cheaper than even the straight corn ration. Similar re- 
sults w^ere secured in France with 17,000 army horses. Tho the 
officers were at first prejudiced against corn, they finally had to 
admit that w^hen it formed a large part of the concentrates the horses 
showed as much energy and vigor as those fed oats, wdth no more 
sickness. The objections often raised that horses fed corn lack nerve 
and action, sweat easily, and wear out earlier are probably due to 
feeding too heavy an allowance of this grain or failure to balance the 
ration properly, 

Thruout the corn belt the grain is usually fed on the cob or shelled. 
Ear corn is safer to feed than shelled for it keeps better, and the 
horse eats it more slowly, chewing it more thoroly. If corn is ground 
for horses with poor teeth or those working long hours, it should be 
ground coarsely, for fine meal forms a mass in the stomach which is 

1 McCampbell, Kan. Bui. 186. 



FEEDS FOR HORSES 239 

difficult to digest and may cause colic. Changes from oats or other 
feeds to corn should be gradual. New corn may produce indigestion. 

The other cereals. — On the Pacific coast, and in Europe, Africa, 
and many parts of the Orient, barley is extensively fed to horses. 
Ground barley is slightly more valuable than ground oats. AYhile the 
high price of sound wheat usually prohibits its use for stock feeding, 
damaged grain may be fed to horses with economy, if not moldy. 
Only moderate amounts should be fed and the crushed wheat should 
be mixed with a bulky concentrate like bran or with chaffed hay or 
straw, to avoid digestive disturbances, as it tends to pack in the 
stomach. Btje may also be used for horses, the same precautions being 
taken to prevent digestive trouble as with wheat. Since these grains 
are hard and small, they should be crushed or rolled. If finely 
ground they form a pasty, unpleasant mass when mixed with the 
saliva in the mouth. 

In the southwestern states, hajir, milo, and the seeds of other sor- 
ghums are extensively used for horse feeding. Being small and hard, 
they shoidd be ground or chopped. They may also be fed unthreshed 
in the head along with the forage. 

Miscellaneous carbonaceous concentrates. — Thruout the sugar- 
cane districts cane molasses is often the most economical source of 
carbohydrates for work animals. On 47 plantations, employing over 
5,000 work animals, chiefly mules, an average of 9.5 lbs. of molasses 
was fed per head daily with excellent results. The molasses was 
usually mixed with the concentrates or with cut hay, but was some- 
times fed in troughs or poured on uncut roughage. When molasses 
is higher in price than oats or corn it is not economical to feed 
it in any large amount, tho a quart or so a day may often be profitable 
as an appetizer for horses out of condition. 

As beet molasses is very laxative, not over 4 to 5 lbs. should be fed 
per head daily to draft horses, and but 2.5 lbs. to driving horses. In 
these amounts and thinned and mixed with other feed, it is well liked 
by horses and has given excellent results. Molasses feeds of good 
quality are satisfactory for horses, when economical in price. 

Bough rice is an economical and satisfactory feed for horses and 
mules in the southern states, when low in price compared with the 
other cereals. 

Dried beet pulp is often refused by horses when fed alone, but may 
be used as a portion of the ration when mixed with other concentrates. 

II. Protein-rich Concentrates 

Wheat bran. — Bran is one of the most useful feeds for horses, be- 
cause of its bulky nature and mild laxative properties. If not more 



240 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



freely provided, its use once a week, perhaps in the form of a mash, 
is desirable. As the immediate eflec-t of a bran mash is somewhat 
weakening, it should be given at night and preferably before a day 
of rest. When low in price, bran may be profitably fed in larger 
amounts as a partial substitute for oats. Fed wdth timothy hay, a 
mixture of equal weights of bran and corn has been found equal to 
one of half oats and half corn. 
Wheat middlings ; shorts. — Due to their heavy, concentrated nature, 




Fig. 67. — Good Care and Management Are as Necessary as 

Proper Feed 

Regularity in working, vatrring, and feeding horses, housing tliem in well- 
ventihitcd stables, and caring for them intelligently go far toward ensuring a 
long life of usefulness. (From Prairie Farmer.) 

middlings or shorts should be fed to horses only in small amounts 
and mixed with bulky concentrates or chaffed roughage. "Without 
these precautions the danger from colic is great, especially with some 
horses. 

Dried brewers' grains. — Before the advent of national prohibition, 
dried brewers' grains, which are satisfactory for horses, could often be 
substituted for oais with profit, A New Jersey market gardener saved 
$150 a year in feeding 8 horses on using dried brewers' grains in place 
of oats, with corn and hay. Dried brewers' grains are about 



FEEDS FOR HORSES 241 

equal to oats. Not being especially palatable, tlicy sliould be mixed 
with other concentrates. 

Linseed meal. — Linseed meal, rich in protein and having tonic and 
somewhat laxative properties, is an excellent supplement for rations 
poor in protein. Not over 1 to 1.5 lbs. per head daily is ordinarily 
fed, due both to its high price and its laxative effect. Linseed meal 
is useful for bringing into condition rundown horses with rough coats, 
and gives bloom and finish in fitting horses for show or sale. 

Cottonseed meal. — While it is unsafe tO' feed large amounts of 
cottonseed meal to horses, good results are secured when this feed is 
properly used. Being a heavj^ feed and not particularl}^ relished b}' 
horses, it should be mixed with better-liked bulky concentrates, such as 
whole or crushed oats, dried brewers' grains, or corn-and-cob meal. 
It may also be sprinkled on silage or on moistened hay or stover. A 
safe rule is to feed not over 0.2 lb. of cottonseed meal for every 100 
lbs. live weight of animal, distributed over 3 daily feeds. Horses 
should be accustomed to the meal gradually, not over one-fourth 
pound being given at each feed for the first 2 or 3 weeks. 

Leguminous seeds. — Like the horse bean and other beans so widely 
fed in Europe, the field pea in the northern states and the cowpea and 
soybean farther south are useful in balancing rations low in protein. 
All should be ground, and, on account of their wealth of protein, 
should never be fed as the sole concentrate. 

Miscellaneous protein-rich concentrates. — Various oil cakes and 
meals, such as peanut, cocoanut, sunflower seed, and rapeseed meal, are 
fed to horses in Europe in quantities of 2 to- 4 lbs. per head daily 
with good results. Dried distillers' grains have given excellent re- 
sults when forming one-fourth of the concentrate allowance. Tank- 
age and Mood meal are useful for rundown horses, 1 to 2 lbs. of 
tankage or 1 lb. of blood meal being fed. 

III. Carbonaceous Roughages 

Too much roughage injurious. — AYhile the horse cannot live on 
concentrates alone, even on oats with their strawlike hulls, too much 
roughage is also injurious. On account of the small capacity of his 
stomach, aa'c cannot expect the horse at work to secure most of his 
nourishment from roughages. Thru carelessness or mistaken kind- 
ness, the mangers are often kept filled with hay. The horse may then 
eat far too much, with digestive disturbances, labored breathing, and 
quick tiring as the results. There should always be a definite, limited 
allowance of haj^, fed mostly at night when there is ample time for 
mastication and digestion. 



242 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

Timothy hay. — Alt ho not i-icli in diycstihle nutrients, timothy hay 
is the standard roughage for the horse thruout the uortheastern 
United States. Its popularity is due to its freedom from dust, its 
palatability, and the fact that it can be secured on almost any market. 
While timothy cut too green makes "washy" hay, it should not be 
allowed to stand until it becomes woody and indigestible. A reason- 
able allowance of timothy hay is 1 lb. daily per 100 lbs. of animal. 

Cereal hay. — On the Pacific coast, especially in California, the 
cereal hays — barley, wild oat, wheat, etc. — are extensively emploj'ed 
as roughages for horses, and in the Rock\' mountain region oat hay is 
of considerable importance. Hay from the cereals can often be ad- 
vantageously emploj'cd in many other sections of the country, as it 
is fully eCjfual to timothy. 

Other carbonaceous hays. — Prairie hay from the Mild grasses is an 
excellent roughage for the horse thruout the western states, being but 
slightly less valuable than timothy. Bronie hay, a common roughage 
in the northern plains region, is fully equal to timothy. Millet hay 
from Hungarian grass, Japanese millet, etc., can often be fed ad- 
vantageously to horses. The amount should be limited and it should 
be fed with grain and preferably with other roughage, as otherwise 
serious kidney trouble may result. Bermuda hay and Johnson-grass 
hay are southern roughages well suited to horses and equal to timothy 
in feeding value. 

Corn fodder and corn stover. — Thickly grown fodder corn and 
corn stover, when properly cured and cared for, are among the best 
of roughages for the horse, for they are palatable and usually quite 
free from dust. For stallions, brood mares, idle horses, and growing 
colts good corn forage is usually an economical substitute for timothy 
hay. In a trial at the New Hampshire Station - corn stover was suc- 
cessfully used as the only roughage for farm horses doing light work 
in winter. When the yield and feeding value of fodder corn are com- 
pared with that of the timothy hay from a like area, the usefulness 
and economy of this much neglected forage are apparent. 

Sorghum fodder or hay. — Forage from the sweet sorghums, when 
properly cured, is superior to corn forage for horses. It usually 
deteriorates rapidly in value after midwinter unless well cured and 
kept dry. Moldy, decayed sorghum forage is especially dangerous to 
horses. Kafir, tho not so palatable as the sweet sorghums, is exten- 
sively and profitably used in the southwestern states. 

Straw. — Owing to its large content of fiber and consequent low 
value for the production of work, but little straw can be fed to hard- 
worked horses. On the other hand, horses doing little or no work and 

2 Buikett, N. II. Bui. 82. 



FEEDS FOR HORSES 



243 



having ample time for clunviiig and digesting- their feed may be Avin- 
tered largely on bright straw instead of costly hay. Farm horses 
should not be wintered in the barnyard on straw and com stover only, 
without grain,- for they w'ill then be in no condition for the severe 
work of spring. The saving thru the use of straw and other cheap 
roughages is well shown in a trial at the Michigan Station,^ where 
the cost of feed for horses doing moderate work during the winter 
was 29.6 cents per head daily when fed timothy hay and oats. When 
shredded corn stover and oat straw was substituted for three-fourths 
of the timothy-hay, and roots, ear corn, and a mixture of equal parts 




Fig. 68. — ]\Iules at Work on a Corn Belt Farm 

The mule is the chief work animal on southern farms and is increasing in 
popularity in the corn states. 

of bran, dried beet pulp, and linseed meal replaced most of the oats, 
the feed bill was lowered over 40 per ct. and the horses better main- 
tained their weights. 

Carbonaceous roug'hag'es require supplement. — It is important to 
remember that hay from the grasses, corn fodder and stover, sorghum 
and kafir forage, and straw, are all low in protein. Therefore, when 
these roughages are fed with such grains as corn, barley, wheat, and 
kafir, some protein-rich concentrate should be added to balance the 
ration. 

3 Norton, Mich. Bui. 254. 



244 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



IV. Legume Hay 

Legume hay. — When given in moderation, well-cured legume hay 
can be satisfactorily fed to horses. The widespread prejudice against 
legume ha}^ for horse feeding is largely due to these rich roughages 
having been fed to excess or to the poor quality of the hay used. 
Since alfalfa and clover hay are more like concentrates in nature 
than is timothy hay, less should be fed to replace a given amount of 
timothy. Horses are especially fond of good legume hay and must 
not be allowed to eat all they desire. It is important that legume ha\- 
for horses be bright and well-cured, for that which is loaded with dust 
and otherwise injured in quality may cause heaves. The following 
statements regarding clover and alfalfa hay will apply in general to 
hay from other legumes, such as cowjjcas and lespedeza. 

Clover hay. — Because clover hay is often carelessly made and 
loaded with dust, it is disliked hy many horsemen, particularly for 
feeding roadsters. This objection does not apply to clean, properly- 
cured clover hay. For driving horses, clover hay may be mixed with 
timothy hay or bright straw, while for horses at ordinary farm work 
it may form the only roughage. The value of this hay for farm 
horses is shown by a trial at the Illinois Station * with 6 teams of 
1, 400-11). horses, one in each team getting clover hay and the other 
timothy, with the results shown in the table. 

Clover vs. timothy hay for horses 

Gain in D;iily 

Average ration weiclit Avorit 

Lbs. Houis 

Clover- jed horses 

Corn, (i.i) lbs. Oats, 7.3 lbs. 

Oil meal, 0.4G lb. Bran, O.Gl lb. 

Clover hay, 1.5.6 lbs 15.5 7.3 

Timothy-fed horses 

Corn, G.S lbs. Oats, 7.2 lbs. 

Oil meal, 0.53 lb. Bran, 0.60 lb. 

Timotliy hay, 15.6 lbs 3.0 7.3 

Altho most of the teamsters were prejudiced in favor of timothy 
hay at the beginning, they later reported that they could observe no 
difference in the spirit of the horses or their ability' to endure hot 
weather. 

Alfalfa hay. — On thousands of farms and ranches thruout the 
West, alfalfa hay is the only roughage fed horses. Its use is also 
rapidly increasing in other sections of the country with the spread 
of alfalfa growing. Alfalfa hay for horses should be free from dust 

4 0breclit, 111. Bui. 150. 



FEEDS FOR HORSES 245 

or mold and should not be cut until fairly mature, as hay cut at the 
stage usually advised for cattle is too "washy" for horses. The 
allowance of alfalfa hay should always be limited, not over 1.2 lbs. 
daily per 100 lbs. live weight being given work horses, for when too 
much of this protein-rich food is eaten not only is the stomach over- 
distended but the kidneys are overworked in excreting the large excess 
of nitrogenous material. 

That alfalfa hay may be used successfully even for horses doing 
hard work at a rapid pace is shown by a trial with artillery horses 
carried on by the Kansas Station.^ These horses worked harder than 
the average farm team does thruout the 3'ear, performing a consider- 
able part of their work at the trot and no small part at a gallop. One 
lot of horses was fed alfalfa hay and another timoth}'- hay, with the re- 
sults shown in the table. 

Alfalfa vs. timoth\j Jiay for horses 

Daily cost of 
Av. gain or feed per 

Average ration loss per 1,000 lbs. 

head live weight 

Lbs. Cents 

Alfalfa-fed ]iorscs 

Shelled corn, 8 lbs. 

Oats, 2 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 10 lbs 25.6 12.!»5 

Timothy-fed horses 

Corn, 4 lbs. 

Oats, 8 lbs. Timothy hay, 14 lbs —7.7 19.21 

The alfalfa-fed horses, getting 2 lbs. less grain and 4 lbs. less hay 
than those fed timothy, showed no shortness of wind, softness, or lack 
of endurance and gained in weight while the others lost. The cost 
of the alfalfa-hay ration was only about two-thirds that of the tim- 
othy-hay ration. Alfalfa with no grain, but often with an unlimited 
amount of straw, is a common ration for idle horses thruout the West. 

Alfalfa meal. — AVhen good quality alfalfa hay is available it is not 
economical to pay a higher price for alfalfa meal, for horses waste but 
little of such hay when properly fed. INIoreover, alfalfa meal is dusty 
and disagreeable to handle, and while the dust may be laid by wetting 
this takes considerable time. 

V. Pasture and Other Succulent Feed 

For horses receiving but little exercise succulent feeds are especially 
beneficial on account of their "cooling," laxative effect. A limited 
amount of succulent feed is often employed thruout the j^ear in 
Europe for work' horses and even for drivers. 

"■' ^rcCanipboll, Kan. r.ul. ISCi. 



246 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

Pasture. — Horses at pasture not only obtain succulent feed, but 
must exercise to secure it. Good pasture will maintain idle horses 
satisfactorily; for those at hard work pasture without grain is insuffi- 
cient. Not only do the various tame and wild grasses furnish pasture 
for horses but as these animals are not subject to bloat they may 
graze the legumes as well. City horses are often turned on pasture 
so that their feet may recover from the ill effects of hard pavements. 

Corn silage. — Until recent years little corn silage has been fed to 
horses and mules, but it is now being used with success on many 
farms. It should not be the only roughage but should serve as a 
partial substitute for hay. While horses at hard work can not con- 
sume much silage, because of its bulky nature, it is well suited to idle 
horses, brood mares, and growing colts. Since poisoning may result 
from feeding moldy silage to horses, only that of good quality should 
be used, and this fed under intelligent supervision. 

Roots; tubers; fruits. — The only importance of roots for horse 
feeding in most sections of this country is as an aid to digestion, for 
the cereals generally furnish nutriment at lower cost. Carrots, 
especially relished by horses, are great favorites with horsemen when 
cost of keep is not considered. It requires about 350 lbs. of carrots 
or 400 lbs. of rutabagas to replace 100 ll)s. of good meadow hay. 
Potatoes may be fed, cooked or raw, in amounts up to 17.5 lbs. per 
head dail^^ Fresh fruit may sometimes be profitably fed in moderate 
amounts when there is no market for it, and dried fruits, slightly' 
injured and thereby unsalable, have been successfully used for horses. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How should corn be used for liorse feeding? 

2. What is the vakie of tlie other cereals for horses? 

3. Name and tell the value of other carbonaceous concentrates suitable for 
horses. 

4. Discuss the use and value of at least six protein-rich concentrates suitable 
for liorses. ^^'hich are used most commonly in your section? 

'■>. \\'\\y is timothy hay a favorite for horses? 

(1. Wliat is the value of cereal hay, prairie hay, brome hay, millet hay, 
Bermuda hay, and Johnson-grass hay? 

7. Discuss tiie use of corn fodder and stover, sorghum fodder, and straw. 

5. What precautions should be observed in feeding legume hay to liorses? 

!). Show by examples how clover or alfalfa hay may be substituted for 
timothy hay. 

10. Discuss the value for horses of succulent feeds — pasture, corn silage, and 
roots. 



CHAPTER XX 

FEEDING AND CARE OF DAIRY COWS 



I. The Dairy Cow as a Producer op Human Food 

As the price of land,. labor, and feed increases, the dairy cow will 
more and more displace the strictly meat producing animals, for she 
produces human food far more 
economically than does the 
steer, sheep, or pig. That this 
change is already taking place 
is brought out by recent cen- 
sus statistics. The number of 
dairy cows in the United States 
has continued to increase, 
even tho the number of some 
other classes of stock has de- 
creased. 

Cow and steer compared. — 




leaaagaia^a^BaMsgaMfegaar.^. 




Fig. 69. — Tilly Alcartra, the llulstein 
cow which held the world's record for milk 
production. Tlie milk cans represent her 
The great economy with which averajje weekly production, 6S <>allons. 
the dairy cow converts tl,Q ner y.av^s record ^^■'^yM)A5\ A \h^. oi nm 

■^ n 1 • (I'rom Loiintnj Gentleman ) 

products of the fields mto hu- 
man food is evident from the fact that she yields in her milk 18 lbs. or 
more of edible solids for everj^ 100 lbs. of digestible matter in her 
feed. This is over 6 times as much human food as is produced by a 
steer from the same amount of feed. (See Chapter VI.) 

A dairy cow producing 1 lb. of butter fat per day uses about 47 
per ct. of her food for the support of her body, 24 per ct. in the work 
of converting food nutrients into milk, and actually yields in her 
milk about 29 per ct. of the digestible nutrients in her feed.^ This 
shows her to be a more efficient machine than either the horse or the 
steam engine. (See Chapter YI.) 

Dairy vs. beef type. — When in full flow of milk, a high-producing 
dairy cow is generally spare and shows an angular, wedge-shaped 
form, a roomy barrel, spacious hindquarters, and a large udder. 
This conformation is in strong contrast to that of the low-set, blocky, 
beef animal, with its compact, rectangular form, and broad, smooth 
back. These two types are the result of careful breeding with oppo- 



iHaecker, :Minn. JUil. 140. 



247 



248 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



site objects in view. The beef animal has been developed to store in 
its carcass the largest possible amount of meat. On the other hand, 
for generations the dairy cow has been bred for the primary object of 
producing large yields of milk and butter fat. As a result, tho a 
good dairy cow will put on flesh when she is dry, the impulse to milk 
production is so strong when she is in milk that even under liberal 
feeding she shows little or no tendency to fatten but uses all the sur- 
plus feed above maintenance for the manufacture of milk. 

In view of the widely differing nature of milk and flesh production, 




-The Dairy Type and the I)EEF Type Ap.e 
Widely Dipfekext 

A liigh-piodiK'iiig dairy cow is generally spare and angular and shows a wedge- 
sliaped form, viewed from tlie side, from the front, or from the top of the 
withers. Siie has a roomy barrel, spacious hindquarters, and a large, well-shaped 
udder. (From Humphre}-, Wisconsin Station.) 



it is not surprising that 
gree in the same animal 
not economical milkers, 
beef makers. In a trial 
type required 47 per ct. 
than those of good dairy 
but yet lack in deptli of 



both can not be developed to the highest de- 
As a rule, the most perfect beef cows are. 
and the best dairy cows are not satisfactory 
at the Minnesota Station ^ cows of the beef 
more feed per pound of butter fat produced 
type. Cows which are not of the beef type, 
body, are also not generally economical pro- 



Ilaecker, ilinn. ]!ul. ;>5. 



FEEDING AND CARE OF DAIRY COWS 



249 



ducers, for they cannot consume enough feed to make a large yield 
of milk possible. 

The superiority of cows of the dairy tj'pe is further shown by the 
"cow censuses" conducted by Hoard's Dairyman on farms in many 
states.^ Data from over 17,000 cows showed that the annual yield 
of butter fat by those of good dairy type was 189 lbs., compared with 
138 lbs. for those lacking dairy type. Yet, the annual cost of feed 
was but $1.94 more fur the good cows. "While the cows lacking dairy 




Fig. 71. — The Beef Type, With Compact, Rectangular Form 

The beef type is the result of careful breeding to secure an animal which will 
store in its body tlie largest possible amount of high-priced meat. This beef cow 
has the low-set, blocky, rectangular form, and broad, smooth back of the beef 
t3'pe. (From Humphrey, Wisconsin Station.) 

type returned only $2.03 each per year over the cost of their feed, 
those of good dairy type brought in $17.38 over cost of feed. 

Good and poor producers. — Cows producing a large amount of 
milk and butter fat will naturally eat more feed than those yielding 
less, just as hard-worked horses require more than those at light 
work. However, the yield of the high-producing cows is so much 
larger that it more than offsets the higher cost of their feed. They 
therefore produce milk and butter fat much more cheaply than the 
poorer cows. 

3 Compiled in U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. of Anim. Indus., Bui. 164. 



250 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABlilDGED 

The relative profits from good and poor producers are well shown 
by trials at the Coiineetieiit (Storrs) Station^ where for 5 years the 
cost of feed and the yield of milk and fat for the 5 best and the 5 
poorest cows in the Station herd were compared. The average annual 
cost of feed for the best cows was $57.81 per head, over $8 more than 
for the poorest cows. But the best cows averaged 360 lbs. of butter 
fat per j'ear and returned $39.67 each over the cost of feed, while the 
poorest cows averaged 215 lbs. of fat and returned ojdy $7.44 over 
the cost of the feed. The feed-cost of 1 lb. of fat ^"as 23.6 cents 
with the poorest cows, and but 16.2 cents with the best ones. The com- 
parison would be even more striking Avere it not for the fact that 
these "poorest cows" were really better producers than the average 
cows on American fanns. For the first two years of the trial the 5 
poorest cows did not pay for their feed, but by gradual selection the 
herd was so improved that during the last year the 5 poorest cows 
returned $17.67, on the average, above the cost of feed. 

Weed out unprofitable cows. — Even in the leading dairy states, 
probably one-fourth or more of the dairy cows fail to pay for their 
care and feed, due chiefly to the fact that the owners do not know 
which return a profit and which are "boarders." Tho good pro- 
ducers are usually of the dairy type and poor producers are not, even 
experts are often unable to tell from appearance whether a cow is 
profitable or not. The only reliable way of finding this out is from 
records of the actual amount of milk and fat she yields. 

Fortunately, such records may now be easily secured by the use of 
the milk scales and the Babcock fat test. Knowing the production of 
each cow and the approximate amount of feed she has consumed in a 
given period, the dairyman can discard the unprofitable animals, and 
gradually build up a herd of high producers at small expense by using 
a bred-for-production sire and keeping all heifer calves from the best 
cows. By this means the average yield of fat for the herd can be 
gradually increased year by year, until it is raised to 250 lbs., later 
to 300 lbs., and then even higher. As good cows sometimes have "oH' 
years" in production, animals should not be discarded after a single 
year's trial if there is good reason to believe they will do better in the 
future. 

Keeping records of production. — The most satisfactory way to find 
out the value of each cow is to weigh and record each milking from 
every animal. This does not require much work, if a convenient 
spring balance and handy milk sheets for entrj^ of the records are 
provided. For determining the fat content of the milk, it is sufficient 
to take a sample covering 3 to 5 days of each month. Reasonably ac- 

4 Beach, Conn. (Storrs) Bui. 29. 



FEEDING AND CAKE OF DAIKY COWS 251 

curate records may be obtained by weighing and sampling the milk 
of each cow regularly on 3 consecutive days each month thraout the 
year. The average yield of milk and fat for this period is taken as 
the average for the month. Another method of less value, but better 
than no testing, is to record the production of each cow for 7 con- 
secutive days at intervals of 3 months. Tests covering only a week 
or even a month of the year are unreliable, for cows differ widely in 
persistence of milk yield. A cow which gives a good flow of milk for 
a time but goes dry relatively soon may be much less profitable than a 
persistent milker that never yields as much fat in any one week as 
does the first cow. 

Cow-testing associations. — The remarkable development of dairy- 
ing in the Scandinavian countries of northern Europe has been largely 
due to the worlj of cow-testing associations. In these organizations a 
trained tester is employed, who spends a day every month with each 
of the herds in the association. Arriving on the farm in the after- 
noon he weighs and samples the milk from each cow at milking time. 
He furthermore weighs the concentrates given each cow and also the 
roughage which several get and then estimates the approximate 
amount given to each cow in the herd. The following morning this 
is repeated, after which the samples of milk are tested for butter fat. 
From this day's record he computes the milk and fat production and 
cost of feed for each cow for the current month. AVhile such records 
are not as exact as if every milking were weighed, careful studies have 
shown the results to be within 2 per ct. of the actual production of 
the cow. The tester also studies the local feed market and aids the 
dairyman in working out economical rations. ]\Iany dairymen who 
would not test their herds themselves are glad to secure this service 
at small expense as a member of the association. The improvement 
wrought by these associations is marvelous. In Denmark, largely due 
to their work, the average animal yield of butter per cow has increased 
from 112 lbs. in 1884 to 224 lbs. in 1908. Cow-testing associations are 
now increasing rapidly in the United States and have already accom- 
plished much good. The first association in this country was organ- 
ized in ]\Iichigan in 1905. During the first 8 years the average yield 
of butter fat per cow in 7 herds which had been in the association from 
the beginning, was increased from 231.1 to 284.7 lbs., and the average 
net returns over cost of feed were more than doubled. 

Official tests and advanced registry of dairy cows. — The estab- 
lishment by the dairy breed associations of advanced registers for 
pure-bred cows is another important development of the dairy indus- 
try. Cows are entitled to advanced registry only when their yield in 
tests conducted by representatives of the state experiment stations or 



252 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

of the breed associations has reached a standard set l)y the association. 
Entry in these registers increases the money value, not only of the 
given cow, but also of her relatives, for progressive breeders in buy- 
ing animals now rely more and more on records of production and 
less upon show-ring successes. 

Records of great cows. — Thru skilled breeding combined with 
expert feeding, truly marvelous records of dairy production have 
been secured. The world's records have been steadily raised during 
recent years until now Duchess Skylark Ormsby, a 5-year-old, pure- 
bred Holstein, has produced 1,205.09 lbs. of butter fat in a single year, 
and Tilly Alcartra, another Holstein, holds the record for milk pro- 
duction, with 30,451.4 lbs. of milk to her credit in one year when a 
5-year-old. These records, thought impossible a few j-ears ago, show 
how far the breeding and feeding of dairy cows has advanced. 

II. Factors Influencing the Comfusition and Yield of ^Iilk 

Composition of milk. — The milk of different breeds of cows and 
even of individual cows of the same breed varies quite widely in com- 
position. While the fat content may range from less than 3 per et. 
to 7 per et. or over, there is much less range in the other constituents. 
The milk sugar commonly ranges from 4 to 5 per ct., the casein from 
2 to 3 per ct., the albumin from 0.4 to 0.9 per ct., and the mineral 
matter from 0.6 to 0.9 per ct. 

The average composition of milk from the different breeds is shown 
iu the following table : ^ 

Composition of milk of different breeds 

Breed Total solitls Fat 

Per ct. Per ct. 

Jersey 14.70 5..35 

Guernsev 14.71 5.10 

Devon '. 14.50 4.60 

Shorthorn 13.:;S 4.05 

Brown Swiss 13.27 4.24 

Ayrshire 12.01 3.06 

Holstein-Friesian 1 1.85 3.42 

The Jerseys and Guernseys give the richest, and Ayrshires and 
Holstein-Friesians the poorest, milk. However, the breeds which 
give the richest milk usually j^ield a smaller quantity, so that the 
total amount of fat and total solids is nearly the same for all dairy 
breeds. Not only does the composition of milk depend on the breed 
but it is also influenced by the several factors discussed in the fol- 
lowing paragraphs. 

5 Chiefly from Wing, Milk and Its Prodiuts, p. 33. 



FEEDING AND CARE OF DAIHY COWS 253 

Influence of individuality. — Cows of the .same breed diirer one from 
another, bolli in the aiiiouiit of milk they produce and in its comixxsi- 
tion, especially the percentage of fat. Indeed, cows of the same breed 
may yield milk differing as much in fat percentage as the average 
differences between the several breeds. The milk from an individual 
cow may also vary considerably in fat percentage from day to day, 
due to ehanges in health, cliange of milkers, excitement, variations in 
weather, and, in small degree, to changes in feed. 

First and last drawn milk. — The first milk drawn from the udder 
is very poor in fat, each succeeding portion increasing in richness. 
In a trial at the New York (Geneva) Station "'' the first portion of milk 
drawn from a Guernsey cow contained but 0.76 per ct. fat; the second, 
2.60 per ct. ; the third, 5.35 per ct. ; and the last 9.80 per ct. The 
percentages of casein and albumin vary but little, decreasing slightly 
as the milk becomes richer in fat. 

Effect of period between milkings. — When the intervals of time 
between milkings are unequal, cows generally yield a smaller amount 
of milk after the shorter period, but this milk is slightly richer in fat 
and total solids. For this reason the evening milk is usually richer 
than that drawn in the morning. AVhere the intervals are equal there 
is no regular dift'erence in qualitj^ with cows milked twice a day. 
When they are milked 3 times daily the mid-day milking is usually 
tlie richest. 

Effect of age. — The richness of milk yielded by cows remains prac- 
tically constant until after the third lactation period, after which 
there is a slow, gradual decline in fat percentage. The total yield 
of milk and fat by a heifer normally increases until she is 5 years old. 
A 2-year-old may be expected to give about 70 per ct. as much milk 
and fat as when mature, a 3-year-old about 80 per ct,, and a 4-year- 
old about 90 per ct. A cow may make her best record Avhen 10 or 11 
years old, altho she usually does her best somewhat earlier. Cows 
that breed regularly, usually' show no marked decline in yield until 
at least 12 years old.^ 

Effect of advancing- lactation. — For a few weeks after freshening 
cows usually give somewhat richer milk than during the following 
month or two. The fat percentage then remains fairly constant until 
toward the close of the lactation period, when it gradually increases. 
The most marked effect of advancing lactation is upon the yield of 
milk. In well-managed herds the normal monthly shrinkage in milk 
flow is about as follows: From the second to the seventh month the 
shrinkage varies irregularly, ranging from 4 to 9 per ct. per month, 

6 Van Slyke, .Jour. Am. Chem. Soc, 30, p. 1173. 

7 Eckles, Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, p. 153. 



254 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

based on tlie yield of the given cow for the ])rcvi()us month. The 
average nionlhly decrease during this period is about to 7 per ct. 
After this the decrease becomes more rapid, being i) to 11 per et. for 
the eighth month, 12 to 18 per ct. for the uinth month, and 12 to 23 
per ct. for the tenth month, after which the cows are generally dried 
oft*. The farther advanced a cow is in lactation, the larger is the 
amount of feed required for 100 lbs. of milk or fat. 

Influence of condition at calving. — When a good dairy cow calves 
in a fat coiulition vshe will often yield milk containing 1 to 2 per ct. 
more fat than normal, losing markedly in weight meanwhile.^ This 
is due to her strong dairy temperament, which impels her to withdraw 
fat from her body and put it into her milk. The yearly yield of fat 
may thus be increased by having cows calve in good condition. Also, 
when a cow calves in high condition, a seven-da}^ record of fat produc- 
tion secured shortly after calving is no index to her ability as a long- 
time producer. Yearly records are therefore far more reliable guides 
to the value of dairy cows. 

Influence of feed on richness of milk. — Until recent years it was 
believed that milk varied in percentage of. fat from milking to milk- 
ing, according to the daily feed and care the cow received. We now 
know that if the cow receives sufficient nutrients to maintain her body 
weight, the percentage of fat can not be materially altered for any long 
period of time by greater or less liberality of feeding or by supi)lying 
any particular kind of feed. Cows starved or greatly under-fed may 
produce milk somewhat poorer in fat than normal. In some experi- 
ments adding to the ration palm-nut meal, cocoanut meal, or fats, 
such as cottonseed oil, linseed oil, or corn oil, has slightly increased 
the percentage of fat in the milk for 2 or 3 weeks, after which it again 
became normal. In other cases, feeding fat did not even temporarily 
increase the richness of the milk. Conflicting results have also been' 
secured in trials where cows were fed more protein than actually re- 
quired for body maintenance and milk production. Even where im- 
])rovement resulted from feeding a large amount of protein, the rich- 
ness of the milk was increased bj' only one or two-tenths of one 
per ct. 

The Jersey cow gives milk relatively rich in fat, and the Holstein 
milk that is relatively low in fat. No kind of feed or care will cause 
the Jersey to give milk like that of the Holstein, or the reverse. Were 
a piece of skin, clothed with yellow hair, taken from the body of a Jer- 
sey cow and grafted on the body of a Holstein cow, w^e should expect 
the grafted portion to continue growing yellow, Jersey-like hair. In 
the same way, were it possible to graft the udder of a Jersey cow 

sWoll, Wis. Rpts. 1902, p. 117; 1903, p. 115; Eckles, Mo. Bui. 100. 



FEEDING AND CARE OF DAIRY COWS 



25^ 



on to the body of. a Holstein, we would then expect the Holstein to give 
Jei-sey-like milk. Jt is not the feed, nor the body, nor the digestive 
tract of the cow, but the ghiiids of her udder, which tleteriniue the 
characteristics of the milk yielded by each individual. After all, this 
is what we should expect, for if milk varied with every slight change 
of food and condition, the life of the young, dependent on such milk, 
would be in constant jeopardy. 

While the kind of feed given the cow does not materially change the 
percentage of fat in her milk, in some cases it does alter the character 
or nature of the fat. The fat of milk is composed of several kinds 

USE OF FEED BY CO\YS 




911 



LIBERAL RATION FED TO 
GOOD DAIRY COW 



THREE-FOURTHS RATION 



HALF RATION 

LIBERAL RATION FED TO 
BEEF COW 

FOR X[AINTEXANCE FOR MILK FOB GAIN 
PRODUCTION IN WEIGHT 

P^iG. 72. — It Pays to Feed Good Dairy Cows Liberally 

When fed liberally a oood dairy cow can use half her feed for milk production. 
When fed a three-fourths ration she can use only one-third of her feed for pro- 
ducing milk, and when fed a half-ration she needs all her feed to maintain her 
body. A beef cow, if fed a liberal ration, will turn part of her surplus feed into 
fat instead of milk. (After Van Norman.) 



of fat — palmitin, olein, stearin, butyrin, etc. When a cow is given 
feeds rich in vegetable oils (which contain much olein), the milk fat 
will then contain more olein than normal. This usually tends to 
make the butter softer, for olein is a liquid fat, but in some instances 
this tendency is offset by still other changes in the composition of 
the fat. Cottonseed and eoeoanut meal produce firm, hard butter. 
A change from dry feed to pasture generally produces fat higher in 
olein, resulting in softer butter. 

Influence of feed on yield of product. — Tho the kind and amount 
of feed do not materially affect the richness of the milk, the amount 
of milk a cow will yield, and hence the total yield of fat, depends on 
her feed and care, until her full capacity for milk production is 



2r)6 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

reached. Tlie typical beef cow usually has a very limited "capacity 
for producing- milk and yields only sufficient for her calf, even tho 
her feed be abundant. Any surplus of nutrients is storetl in her 
body as fat. On the other hand, in the well-bred dairy cow the im- 
pulse to produce milk is so strong that with abundant and suitable 
feed and good care she yields much more milk than her calf requires. 

i\Iany dairymen make the serious mistake of failing to supply good 
dairy cows with sufficient feed for the most economical production of 
milk. As shown in Figure 72, a good dairy cow fed a liberal ration 
requires about half her feed to maintain her body and uses the other 
half to make milk. If she receives less feed, the proportion which 
she can use to produce milk will be decreased. For example, if fed 
three-fourths of a full ration, she can use only one-third of what 
she eats to make milk. Should she be fed but half of a full ration, 
she will still need as much as before to maintain her body and no 
feed will remain for milk production. Any milk she then yields 
would be made by robbing her body of nutrients. The true dairy 
cow thus produces milk most economically when fed a liberal ration, 
while a cow of beef type or one lacking in dairy temperament, when 
liberally fed, will store a considerable part of the food nutrients in 
her body as fat, instead of turning them into milk. A safe rule is 
to feed such a cow only what she will eat without gaining in weight. 

The increase in production due to good feed and care is shown in a 
striking manner b}^ a trial at the New York (Cornell) Station.'' A 
herd of cows poorly fed and cared for by their owner, was taken 
from a farm to the Station where they were liberally fed for 2 years. 
Then the cows were returned to their owner and fed by him as be- 
fore. During the time the cows were at the Station they gave 42 
per ct. more milk and 51 per ct. more fat than when with the farmer. 

Turning to pasture; temperature; weather. — When cows are 
turned from winter stables to spring pastures usually both the yield 
of milk and its richness are slightly increased, but after 2 to 4 weeks 
the percentage of fat falls to normal. Especially when tlie grass is 
soft and lush, cows lose in weight for a short time when first turned 
to pasture. 

The tendency is for cows to give richer milk when the temperature 
falls and poorer milk as it rises, and so they generally yield slightly 
poorer milk in summer than in winter. Cows exposed to cold rains 
shrink in milk flow and may yield milk poor in fat. 

Exercise and grooming'. — Moderate exercise tends to increase the 
yield of milk and the richness of all constituents except casein, while 
too much exercise decreases the yield and injures the quality of the 

«Wing and Foord, N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 222. 



FEEDING AND CARE OF DAIRY COWS 257 

milk. In some trials grooming increased the flow of milk 4 to 8 per 
et. while in others where the nngroomed eows were not allowed to 
become filthy, it brought no increase, Tho grooming may not in- 
crease the yield of milk, it does improve its quality by lessening the 
number of bacteria contained and may improve the health of the 
animals. 

Milking machines. — Because of the difficulty of securing efficient 
hand milkers, the use of milking machines is certain to increase. 
Several types of machines have now been greatly improved and long- 
continued trials at various stations show that when cows are milked 
with the best machines by careful operators and with well-adjusted 
teat cups there is no injurious effect on the yield or cjuality of the 
milk, or on the health of the animals. While with most cows the 
machine does riot draw quite all the milk from the udder and it is 
necessary to strip by hand, considerable time is saved by machine 
milking. When the machines are properly cleansed and the rub- 
ber tubing kept in an antiseptic solution, the sanitary condition of 
the milk is improved over that ordinarily obtained by hand milking. 
Owing to the first cost of the machines and the labor involved in their 
operation and cleansing, various authorities consider machine milk- 
ing economical under usual conditions only where at least 15 to 30 
cows are milked thruout the year. 

Regularity and kindness. — For the best results with dairy cows, 
as with other farm animals, they should be treated with kindness at 
all times, and regularity in feeding and care should be observed. 
The highest yielding cows are usually of nervous temperament, and, 
especially with such animals, excitement usually causes a sharp de- 
crease in yield. Cows being driven should not be hurried and at- 
tendants should never strike or otherwise abuse them. Good dairy- 
men now realize the fact brough-t to public attention by W. D. 
Hoard of Wisconsin that dairying is based on the maternitj' of the 
cow, and treat their animals accordingly. As Ilaecker writes,^" "If 
you so handle the cows that they are fond of you, you have learned 
one of the most important lessons that lead to profitable dairying. 
... A cow's affection for the calf prompts the desire to give it milk; 
if you gain her affection she will desire to give you milk." 

While milking is usually regarded as a simple task which anyone 
can do, there may be a great difference in the returns which different 
milkers get from the same cow. A cow should be milked quietly 
with the dry hand, and stripped out thoroly, the milker bearing 
in mind that the last-drawn milk carries about 10 times as much fat 
as that drawn first. 

10 Minn. Bui. 130. 



258 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

Minor points. — Dehorning cow.s causes a small tem{»orary decrease 
in milk flow but is repaid a hunilred fold in the greater comfort of 
liie • herd tiiereafter. Subjecting cows to the tuberculin test has 
practically no effect on the yield of milk, or fat. Tho milking three 
times a day may cause a slightly larger flow of milk, it is not profit- 
able except Avith verj^ heavy milkers and cows on official test. 

Flavor, odor, and color. — The flavor and odor of milk and its 
jjToducts are highly important. Due to minute quantities of volatile 
oils they contain, onions, leeks, turnips, rape, etc., give an objec- 
tionable flavor to milk, unless fed innnediately after milking so that 
the volatile oils may escape from the body before the next milking. 
When cows are first turned to pasture, we at once note a grass flavor 
in the milk and butter, which soon disappears or which we fail to 
notice later. 

Experiments at the ^lissouri Station " show that the yellow color 
of butter fat is due to a substance called carotin, so named because it 
is the same coloring matter found in the carrot. Cows can not make 
this coloring matter in their body but secure it from feeds which 
contain it. The yellowness of cream and butter in summer is due 
to the fact that green feeds are rich in carotin, tho we can not see it 
because the green chlorophyll masks its color. Bright green hay 
and yellow roots also contain much carotin, while most concentrates 
and drj^ roughages are poor in this coloring matter. 

Butter and cream from Guernsey and Jersey cows is yellower than 
that from other breeds, not because these cows can manufacture 
carotin, but because they can transfer to their milk a larger part of 
the carotin in their feed. They also store the yellow^ carotin in their 
body fat, in winter transferring some of it to their milk. 

III. Feeding for ]\1ilk Production 

Imitate pasture conditions the year around. — Every daiiyman 
k'nows that his herd normally reaches maximum production when on 
luxuriant pasture in late spring or early summer. As Eckles points 
out,^- to secure the largest yield during the other months of the year 
the following summer conditions should be imitated as closely as 
possible: (1) An abundance of feed; (2) a balanced ration; (3) suc- 
culent feed; (4) palatable feed; (5) a moderate temperature; (6) 
comfortable surroundings; (7) reasonable exercise. Upon the ability 
of the dairyman to maintain these favorable conditions for his herd 
thruout the year, depend in large measure his profits. 

11 Palmer and Kckles, Mo. Res. Bills. 9, 10. 11, 12: also Cir. 74. 

12 Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, p. 257. 



FEEDING AND CAKK OF DAIKY COWS 



259 



The proper concentrate allowance. — A good dairy cow in full 
flow of milk is exjieiuliiiji' fully as iniich energy as a horse at hard 
work, and hence should not be expected to get all her nourishment 
from roughages, even if of good quality. How much concentrates 
to feed is a question of great economic importance to dairymen, for 
in most cases roughages are the cheap and concentrates the costly 
part of the ration. The amount of concentrates advisable depends 
iirst on the quantity and quality of the roughages furnished; and 
second, on the productive capacity of the cows. For the most 




Fig. 73. — Imitate Su:\imer Conditions the Year Round 

The most successful dairymen imitate summer conditions as closely as possible 
during the rest of the year. 



economical production and the largest profit, cows of good dairy 
temperament should generally receive at least 6 to 8 lbs. of concen- 
trates, in addition to all the good roughage, such as legume hay and 
corn silage, that they will consume. Exceptional producers can use 
more concentrates with profit, but, if concentrates are high-priced, 
cows of only low productive capacity may not pay for any grain in 
addition to good legume hay and corn silage. The dairyman who 
persists in giving his cows only such low grade roughages as tim- 
othy hay, corn stover, etc., must pay the penalty by feeding them 



260 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



from 10 to 12 ll)s. of cxpciisiNc coiicciitratcs daily to secure a reason- 
able flow ol' milk. 

Cows should be fed individually. — Even when fed liberally, eows 
of marked dairy temperament rarely lay on flesh when in full flow 

of milk, provided their ration is 
well balanced. But cows of ordi- 
nary capacity may easily be over- 
fed, in which case they lay on fat 
instead of increasing their milk 
l)roduction. Since even in well- 
bred and well-selected herds the 
dilt'erent cows vary widely in pro- 
ductive ability, to secure the most 
profit they must be fed as individ- 
uals, instead of giving both high 
and low producers the same ration. 
It is not necessary, however, t(^ 
compute a balanced ration for each 
animal. All that is needed is to 
determine what amounts and pi'o- 
portions of roughages and concen- 
trates should be used to make the 
most economical ration that meets 
the requirements for the average 
cows in the herd, after the man- 
ner shown in Chapters VII and 
YIII. For example, the ration on 
Page 110 meets the average rc'iuire- 
ments for cows producing 30 lbs. 
of 3.5 per ct. milk daily. In feed- 
ing the herd, each cow should be given all the roughage she will eat, 
which will usually be about 2 lbs. of dry roughage daily per 100 lbs. 
live weight, or 1 lb. of dr,y roughage and 3 lbs. of silage. Then the 
amount of concentrates for each cow ma^' be determined from one of 
the following rules : 

1. Feed 1 lb. of concentrates per day for each ])oiind of hiiltor fat llio cow 
produces per week, or 

2. Feed 1 lb. of concentrates per day for each 3 io 4 llis. of milk, depending 
on its richness, or 

.3. Feed as much as the cow will pay for at tlie rulinfj ]irices for feeds and 
products, increasing tlie allowance gradually until slie fails to respond by an 
increase in production which will cover the increase in cost. 




Fig. 74. — The milk scales and the 
Babcock test enable the dairj-man to 
weed out the unprofitable cows and 
to feed his good cows individually 
in proportion to their production. 
(From Wisconsin Station.) 



FEEDING AND CAKE OF DAIKY COWS 261 

The first 2 rules apply only when abundant roughage of good 
quality is supplied. Heavy producers require a narrower nutritive 
ratio than ordinary animals, and hence it may be advisable to alter 
the character of the concentrate mixture for them. It is also wise 
to feed a more nitrogenous concentrate allowance to cows showing a 
tendency to fatten, while those losing flesh should receive a larger 
proportion of the carbonaceous concentrates, such as the farm-grown 
grains. Since heifers in milk are still growing in addition to giving 
milk, they should be fed more liberally than mature cows yielding 
the same amount of milk. 

Feeding concentrates on pasture. — The economy of feeding con- 
centrates to cows on good pasture depends on the relative cost of 
pasturage and concentrates, the price secured for dairy products, 
and the productive capacity of the cows. While the animal giving 
only an average quantity of milk may not pay for such addition, the 
heavy-yielding cow can not long continue her high production Avith- 
out some concentrates, unless the pasture be unusually luxuriant. 
Eckles ^^ concludes that a Jersey giving 20 lbs. or a Holstein yielding 
25 lbs. of milk or more daily, should be fed some concentrates on 
pasture, the amount being left to the business judgment of the dairy- 
man. Feeding a moderate amount of concentrates on pasture is 
often advisable, even when it does not increase the yield enough to 
return an immediate profit, for the cows are kept in better condition 
and will yield more the following months. This is especially true 
with heifers which are still growing and require liberal feed in order 
to reach full development. 

Supplementing short pasture. — It is of great importance that ad- 
ditional feed be given daiiy cows when pastures become parched and 
scant in midsummer. Otherwise, the milk flow will surely decrease, 
and even should the pastures improve later, the cows can not be 
brought back to their normal flow of milk. Corn or sorghum silage 
usually furnishes the cheapest feed for this purpose, but w-here this 
is not available soiling crops should be specially grown. 

The ration should be properly balanced. — Because milk is rich in 
protein and mineral matter, especially lime and phosjihorus, the 
ration of the dairy cow should contain an ample supply of these 
nutrients. (See Chapter VI.) Fortunately, legume hay is rich in 
all these constituents, which explains its high value for milk produc- 
tion. As pointed out in Chapter VIII, the amount of protein it will 
pay to feed depends on the relative prices of protein-rich and car- 
bonaceous feeds. Even when the former are high in price, the pro- 
tein allowance should not fall far below the minimum shown in 

13 Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, p. 256. 



2(i2 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABKIDGED 

Appendix Table V. In districts where protein-rich feeds are the 
clieapest, cows have been fed rations as narrow as 1 : -i without 
harm. 

Succulent and palatable feed. — Numerous trials have shown tiie 
importance of providing succulent feed, either com silage or roots, 
for Avinter feeding to take the place of sunnner pasture. The value 
of succulence is due in no small measure to its beneficial laxative 
effect and to its palatability, which undoubtedly tends to stimulate 
digestion. Not only should succulent feed be supplied, but the rest 
of the ration for cows yielding a good flow of milk should be as 
palatable as possible. Such roughages as timothy hay, straw, and 
corn stover may be used in limited amount, but should not form the 
chief roughage. Concentrates not relished when fed alone may be 
mixed with Avell-liked feed. The concentrate allowance should be 
composed of two or more feeds, for a mixture is relished better than 
a single kind of grain or roughage. It is also Avell to feed at least 
two kinds of roughage. 

Shelter and comfort. — In w-inter, the steer, gorged with feed and 
every day adding to the heat-holding layer of fat just beneath the 
skin, prefers the yard or open shed to the stable. The dairy cow 
stands in strong contrast, her system being severely taxed thru the 
annual drain of maternity and the daily loss of milk. The cow should 
be eomfortalily housed in a well-lighted, well-ventilated stable, hav- 
ing a temperature ranging from 40° to 50° F. in winter. To preserve 
the health of the herd as well as for sanitarj^ reasons, it is advisable 
to have not less than 4 square feet of window glass for each animal. 
It is well to disinfect the stable thoroly at least once a year, to check 
any possible spread of disease. As the dairy cow is a sensitive, 
nervous animal the wise dairyman will provide comfortable stalls or 
swinging stanchions, and see that the cows are well bedded. 

Water. — Cows in milk require about 100 lbs., or 12.5 gallons, of 
water per head daily, and heavy yielding cows even more. As cows 
are creatures of habit, those of ordinary productive capacity will 
have their needs supplied if once each day they can easily secure 
all the water they can then drink. Iligh-producing animals should 
have water at least twice a day. The supply should be of good 
quality and close by, so the cows will not be forced to travel far. 

Opinions differ as to the advisability of warming water for cows 
in winter. Owing to the heavy rations cows in milk consume, there 
is a large amount of heat produced in their bodies thru the energy 
expended in the mastication, digestion, and assimilation of the feed. 
When comfortably housed, probably little or no nutrients need be 
burned in the body for warming the water drunk in winter, provided 



FEEDING AND CARE OF DAIRY COWS 2G3 

it is no colder tlian that from a deep well. However, it is advan- 
tageous to warm the water for heavy-yielding cows, for unless this is 
done they ma}' not drink enough to make possible the maximum pro- 
duction of milk. In regions with severe winters cows should be 
watered indoors when the weather is so bad that it is not desirable 
to turn them out for exercise. 

Salt. — We have already seen in Chapter IV that dairy cows re- 
quire salt to thrive. An allowance of 0.75 ounce daily per 1,000 lbs. 
live weight, with 0.6 ounce in addition for each 20 lbs. of milk is 
generally sufficient." The salt ma}^ be regularly mixed with the 
feed, or the cows may be allowed free access to it. 

Preparation of feed. — Since the cow giving a large flow of milk is 
working hard, her grain should be ground or crushed if not otherwise 
easy of mastication and digestion. Corn and oats should generally, 
and wheat, rye, barley, kafir, and milo always, be ground or crushed, 
and roots should be sliced or pulped. There is no advantage in cook- 
ing or soaking ordinary feeds. 

Frequency and order of feeding. — On account of the large 
capacity of the cow's paunch and the considerable time needed for 
rumination, the common practice of feeding cows twice daily, with 
possibly a little roughage at noon, is a reasonable one. In the roomy 
paunch hay and grain, eaten separately, are thoroly mixed by the 
churning action and gradually softened in the warm, abundant 
liquid the paunch contains. This true, the particular order of feed- 
ing roughages and concentrates is not important, tho the same order 
should be followed from day to day and the cows should be fed at 
regular intervals. Hay and other dry forage is usually not fed till 
after milking, because they fill the air with dust. Silage, turnips, 
cabbage, or other feeds with a marked odor should be given only 
after milking. 

Cows need a rest. — Dairymen agree that it is best to give the dairy 
cow a rest b^- drying her off 6 to 8 weeks before freshening, for she 
will then produce more milk annually than if milked continuously. 
To avoid injury to the udder she should be dried off gradually. She 
should also be in good condition at calving, for this insures a good 
flow of milk and lessens the trouble in calving. Only sufficient con- 
centrates should be fed to put her in proper flesh, and if she has been 
heavily fed with rich concentrates while giving milk, a helpful change 
may now be made to a ration which will rest and cool the digestive 
tract. Just previous to calving the feed should be slightly laxative, 
tho if on pasture no especial attention need be given to this point. 
For cows that freshen while housed nothing is better than legume 

i^Babcock and Carlyle, Wis. Rpt. 1905. 



2G4 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

hay and silage, with a couple of pounds of concentrates added, if 
necessary. 

Calving time. — The gestation period of the cow is from 280 to 285 
days. At calving time she should be kept in a clean, comfortable, 
well-bedded box stall unless on pasture, and should not be molested 
unless assistance is required. In winter her drinking water should 
be lukewarm for 2 or 3 days after calving, and she should be pro- 
tected from cold drafts, for her vitality is then low. The feed for 
the first few days should be limited in amount and of cooling, laxa- 
tive nature. Besides legume hay and silage, she may be given such 
feeds as bran, often fed as a mash, oats, and linseed meal. High- 
producing cows should be watched closely for signs of milk-fever, 
and the air treatment, the great boon to dairymen, used if necessary. 
The yearly production of the cow depends in a considerable measure 
on the feed she receives during the first month after calving. The 
concentrate allowance, small at first, should be increased gradually, 
at the rate of a half-pound every other day until the full allowance is 
reached, for heav}^ feeding immediately after calving may lead to 
digestive disturbances. If the udder is swollen and hard, even more 
care should be used in getting the cow to the full ration. 

By having cows freshen in the fall a larger annual yield of milk 
is possible, for they give a good flow during the winter and are 
stimulated to high production again when turned to pasture in 
spring. Spring-fresh cows yield most of their milk when dairy prod- 
ucts are low in price and when the dairyman is busiest with his crops. 
"When cows freshen in the fall more time can be given to the raising 
of the calves, and there will be less trouble from scours than in 
summer. Fall-dropped calves are large enough b.y spring to make 
good use of pasture and are better able to stand the hot weather. 

IV. The Cost of ]\1ilk Production 

Annual feed requirement. — The following table shows the amount 
and cost of feed consumed annually by dairy cows and the returns in 
milk and fat, as shown by trials at 10 widely separated American 
stations. 

At the ^Massachusetts Station the cows Avere fed soilage in the 
summer, only the dry cows being turned to pasture. In New Jersey 
they were likewnse maintained in summer almost wholly on soilage 
and silage. At the other stations the pasture period ranged from 181 
days in INIinnesota to 191 in Missouri. The great value of alfalfa 
hay in reducing the amount of concentrates fed and the cost of keep 
is shown by the Utah and Montana reports. The prices of feed have 



FEEDING AND CAKE OF DAIRY COWS 



265 



increased greatly in many instances since these results Avere reported, 
but from Uie data in the table one can readily estimalc llie ycauy 
cost of feed at local market prices. 

Feed requirement of ike dairy cow as found h\j ten stations 





No. of 

years 


Feed eaten 


Av. cost 
of feed 
per cow 


Returns 


Stations 


Pas- 
ture 


Concen- 
trates 


Silage, 
roots, 
soilnge 


Hay 


Milk 


Fat 


Massachusetts i 
Connecticut - . . 
New Jersey s . . 
Michigan * .... 
Wisconsin •■> ... 
^^'isconsin <» ... 
Minnesota 7 ... 
^Missouri 8 .... 

Utah 9 

^lontana lo .... 
Nebraska n .... 


6 
5 
6 
1 
3 
4 
1 
1 
5 
2 
2 


Da.vs 

38 

152 

168* 

139 

180 

150-* 

131 

101 

153 

150 

187 


Lbs. 
2,140 
2,029 
2.624 
2,774 
1,914 
2,010 
3.435 
3.027 
1 ,305 
1.169 
1,079 


Lbs. 
4.938 
8,694 
16,753 
3,638 
9,448 
8.318 
5,306 

3,692 


Lbs. 

5,105 

1,830 

1,825 

3,986 

1,200 

1,490 

2,029 

3,480 

4,518 

6,468 

2,347 


Dols. 
90.04 
53.46 
44.68 
35.96 
37.68 
48.82 
37.82 
35.30 
21.43 
32.45 
31.61 


Lbs. 
6,030 
5,498 
6,165 
7,009 
7,061 
8,036 
6,408 
5,927 
5,601 
5.993 
8,783 


Lbs. 
306 
279 
277 
260 
209 
344 
301 
248 
237 
250 
330 



1 Bui. 145. 2 Bui. 29. 3 Rpts. 1897-1904. 4 Bui. 166. •? Rpts. 1905-7. 6 Buls. 167. 
187,217. 7 Bui. 35. 8 Bui. 26. 9 Bui. 68. 10 Rpt. 1905. 11 Bui. 101. 
* Pasture limited in amount. 

Cost of milk production. — The cost of feed is by far the largest 
single item in the cost of producing milk, making up from one-half to 
two-thirds the total gross cost. Next in importance is the cost of 
man and also horse labor in milking and feeding the cows, cleaning 
the stables, handling and hauling milk, etc. This will make up at 
least one-tifth to one-fourth the total gross cost. In addition to cost 
of feed and labor, the following must be included to ascertain the 
actual cost of producing milk: (1) depreciation, interest, and taxes on 
the cow herself; (2) depreciation, interest, and taxes on buildings; 

(3) depreciation and interest on barn tools and dairy implements; 

(4) cost of perishable tools and supplies, including bedding, ice, salt, 
brushes, record sheets, etc.; (5) proportionate cost of pure-bred sire; 
(6) miscellaneous expenses, including mortality risk and veterinary 
services. Under present conditions, the gross cost of all items ex- 
cept feed will be $40 to $75 or over a 3'ear, varying considerabl}^ for 

the different sections of the country, depending on the price of labor, 
the shelter required, etc. From the gross cost should be deducted the 
birth value of the calf and the value of the manure produced. 

Several formulas have been devised in an attempt to estimate the 
cost of producing milk with feeds at various prices. Pearson of the 
Illinois Station ^'' has worked out the following formula, in which all 

15 111. Bui. 216. 



-'(^6 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

costs ill milk production are reduced to terms of the prices for feed 
and man labor. 

Tlie average net cost thruoiit the year of producing 100 lbs. of milk is equal 
to tlie cost of tlie following at local prices: Grain, 44 lbs.: silage, 188 lbs.; 
liay, 50 lbs.; other roughage. 39 lbs.; man labor, 2.42 hrs. 

As it costs considerably more to produce milk in winter than in sum- 
mer when the cows are on pasture, in order to secure a steady supply of 
milk for city consumption, the price paid farmers must be higher in 
winter than in summer. The average monthly prices paid to farmers 
supplying milk to Chicago from 1007 to 1916 have been the follow- 
ing percentages of the average annual price: January, 119.0 per 
ct.; February, 114.3 per ct. ; March, 106.5 per ct. ; April, 9-4.2 per 
ct. ; iNIay, 73.2 per ct. ; June, 70.6 per ct. ; July, 83.7 per ct.; August, 
94.2 per ct. ; September, 96.7 per et. : October 109.2 per ct. ; No- 
vember, 118.3 per ct. ; December, 120.3 per ct. Pearson believes that 
these monthly prices correspond roughly with the monthly variations 
in the cost of producing milk in this section. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Compare the economy with Avhich the cow and tlic steer produce Inunan food. 

2. What is meant by dairy type and beef type? 

3. How do good and poor producers compare in economy of ])roduction '.' 

4. How would you build up a herd of high-producing cows? 

5. Discuss the keeping of records of production and the work of cow' testing 
associations. 

6. What is the common range in composition of milk? 

7. What is the average percentage of total solids and fat in Jersey, Cuernsey, 
Ayrshire, and Holstein milk? 

8. Discuss the influence of individuality, portion of milk drawn, ])eriod be- 
tween milkings, age of cow, advancing lactation, and condition at calving on tlie 
composition and yield of milk. 

9. What influence does the feed have: (a) on the richness of milk; (b) on 
the amount of milk produced? 

10. How do turning to pasture, temperature, weather, e.vcrcise, grooming, milk- 
ing machines, and regularity and kindness alFect milk production? 

11. What causes the yellow color of butter fat? 

12. Name seven pasture conditions which should be imitated during the rest of 
the year. 

13. How much concentrates should be fed to dairy cows: (a) in winter; (b) on 
pasture? Would you feed the same amount to all the cows in the herd? 

14. Discuss the importance of properly balanced rations, succulent and pala- 
table feed, shelter and comfort, water, salt, preparation of feed, and frequency and 
order of feeding. 

15. How should cows be fed and cared for before calving and at calving time? 

16. Find the actual amounts and cost of feed given dairy cows in a good herd in 
your vicinity and compare with the figures in this chapter. 



CHAPTER XXI 

FEEDS FOR .THE DAIRY COW 

I. Carbonaceous Concentrates 

With the high prices now ruling for feed and labor, on many 
farms, even where good dairy cows are kept, milk is being produced 
at little or no profit to the owner. Yet, by a wise selection of feeds 
other dairymen secure goodly profits from cows no better. This 
shows emphatically that the feeding of the herd should be given most 
careful study, and the system of farming so planned that a ration 
both well balanced in chemical nutrients and otherwise satisfactory 
may be provided at minimum expense. 

Indian corn. — Thruout the corn belt Indian corn, a grain highly 
relished by the cow, is usually the cheapest carbonaceous concentrate 
available. Owing to its wide nutritive ratio, corn should be used 
as the sole concentrate only when leguminous roughages supply the 
lacking protein, and even then more variety in the ration is advis- 
able. The poor results secured when corn is not properly balanced 
by protein-rich feeds are shown in the following table. This gives 
the results of a trial at the Illinois Station ^ in which one lot of cows 
was fed a well-balanced ration, in which gluten feed and clover hay 
furnished the necessary protein, while a second lot was fed corn 
as the only concentrate, with corn silage, timothy hay, and a small 
amount of clover hay. 

Corn requires supplement for feeding dairy cows 

Average ration 

Lot I, balauccd ration 
Ground corn, 3 ,3 lbs. 
Gluten feed, 4.7 lbs. 

Lot If, unbalanced ration 
Ground corn, 8 lbs. 



During the trial the cows in Lot I produced 47 per ct. more milk 
and 39 per ct. more fat than those in Lot II, fed the same weight 

1 Fraser and Hayden, 111. Bui. 159. 

267 





Nutritive 
ratio 


A 


verace 
Milk 
Lbs. 


daily 


vield 
Fat 
Lbs. 


Clover hay, 8 lbs. 












Corn silage, 30 lbs. . . 


.... 1: G 




30.1 




0.06 


Timothy hay, 5 lbs. 
Clover hay, 3 lbs. 
Corn silage, 30 lbs. . 


1:11 




20.5 




0.69 




Fig. 75. — Champion Cows of the Dairy Breeds. 1917 



Upper, left. — TTolstein cow, Duclioss Skylark Onnsbv. Record at 5 vcars of 
age, 27,701.7 lbs. milk, containinj; 120r).nn lbs. butter fat. (Worlds record for 
butter fat production.) Owned by John B. Irwin, j\Iinneapolis, Minn. 

L'niier, rii/ht. — Ilolstein cow, Tilly Alcartra. Record at .'i years of acje, 30.4.>2.6 
lbs. milk, containing,' 0.il.20 ll)s. butter fat. (World's record for milk jiroduction.) 
Owned by A. W. Morris and Sons, Woodland, Cal. 

Middle, left. — Guernsey cow, ]\rurnp Cowan. Record at 8 years of age, 24,008.0 
lbs. milk, containing 1,098.18 lbs. butter fat. Owned by O. C. Barber, Akron, 
Ohio. 

Middle, right. — Jersey cow, Sophie lOth. of Hood Farm. Record at 7 years of 
age, 17,5.57.8 lbs. milk, containing 1)99.14 lbs. butter fat. Owned by C. I. Hood, 
Lowell, ]\Iass. 

Loner, left. — Ayrshire cow, Lily of Willowmoor. Record, 22,.596 lbs. of milk, 
containing Hoo.oG lbs. butter fat. Owned by J. W. Clise, Redmond, Wasii. 

Lower, right. — Brown Swiss cow, College Bravura. Record, l'),4f>0.G lbs. milk, 
containing "7!»S.1G lbs. butter fat. Owned by Michigan Agr. College. (Photo 
from Hoard's Dairyman.) 



FEEDS FOR THE DAIKY COW 2G9 

of concentrates and roughages, but in an unbalanced ration. This 
shows the folly of expcKiiig profitable production from such un- 
balanced combinations of feed, even tho they may be palatable. 

Corn is commonly ground for dairy cows, but sometimes ear or 
shock corn is fed. When other bulky concentrates are not furnished 
it may be advisable to feed corn in the form of corn-and-cob-meal. 

Hominy feed. — This by-product, quite similar to corn in composi- 
tion, compares favorably with it in feeding value. Like corn, it 
should be supplemented by feeds rich in protein. 

Oats. — This grain, which supplies somewhat more protein than 
does corn or wheat, is an excellent feed for the dairy cow, but, owing 
to their high price, it is usually not economical to use any large 
amount of oats. The various concentrate by-products are generally 
cheaper sources of crude protein, while corn furnishes carbohydrates 
at less expense. 

Barley, wheat, rye, emmer. — Barley is quite widely fed to dairy 
cows in Europe, and has a reputation for producing milk and butter 
of excellent quality. Recent trials at the Wisconsin station show 
lliat ground barley is fully equal to ground corn. Whcdt, which is 
usually too high priced for feeding except when of poor quality, 
has about the same value for cows as corn. Large allowances of 
rye produce a hard, dry butter, but 2 to 3 lbs. per head daily mixed 
with other feeds has given good results. Enimer is about 13 per 
ct. less valuable than corn or barley for dairy cows. All these small 
grains should be ground, or, preferably, rolled. 

Kafir, mile, and sorghum. — These grains are of great importance 
to dairymen in the semi-arid Southwest, being the cheapest concen- 
trates available. ]\Ieal from the sweet sorghums is only 10 to 15 
per ct. less valuable than corn, and katir and milo probabl}^ approach 
corn even more closely in value. 

Dried beet pulp.- — On account of its slightly laxative and cooling 
effect, this bulky, carbonaceous concentrate has become popular with 
dairymen, especially for cows on forced test. It is about equal to 
corn in value. Where silage is not available, dried beet pulp, mois- 
tened before feeding, as it should alwa3^s be when fed in large amount, 
is a satisfactory^, tho usually an expensive, substitute. 

II. Protein-Rich Concentrates 

Wheat bran.^This palatable, bulky concentrate is one of the most 
esteemed feeds for the dairy cow, since it is fairly high in crude pro- 
tein, rich in phosphorus, and has a beneficial laxative effect on the 
digestive tract. Owing to its popularity, bran is often high in price, 



270 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

considering the amonnt of ernde i)rotein it furnishes. Other by- 
products, sucli us gluten feed, dried brewers' grains, and cottonseed 
meal, which are richer in digestible crude protein, are therefore 
usually more economical supplements for rations low in protein. 
Hence, it is often best to feed bran only in limited amount for its 
beneficial effect on the health of the animals, rather than attempt to 
balance the ration with bran alone. This concentrate is especially 
valuable for cows just before and after calving, for those on oiiticial 
test, and for young, growing animals. 

Wheat middlings or shorts; wheat mixed feed. — Tho higher in 
digestible crude protein than wheat bran, middlings or shorts are 
less palatable and are heavy, rather than bulky feeds. They should 
hence be fed to dairy cows only in limited amounts, mixed with other 
concentrates. Due to its higher content of digestible crude protein 
and carbohydrates, a good grade of wheat mixed feed is worth about 
10 per ct. more than wheat bran. 

Corn gluten feed; gluten meal; germ oil meal. — Gluten feed, wiiich 
carries about twice as much digestible crude jirotein as wheat bran, 
is a valuable concentrate for the dairy cow. It contains only about 
70 per ct. as much digestible crude protein as linseed meal, but 
furnishes slightly more total digestible nutrients. In a trial at the 
Iowa Station - gluten feed was equal to linseed meal when forming one- 
third of the concentrates, with alfalfa hay and corn silage for rough- 
age. Gluten meal is used much less for dairy cows than gluten feed, 
but is a satisfactory concentrate. It is much heavier, due to the 
absence of the corn bran, and contains as much crude protein as lin- 
seed meal. Germ oil meal and wheat bran, mixed in equal parts, 
proved superior to a mixture of 1 part cottonseed meal, 1 part lin- 
seed meal, and 2 parts wheat bran in a trial at the Vermont Station.^ 

Dried brewers' grains. — Before national prohibition, this bulky 
concenti-ate was widely fed to dairy cows. Considerable amounts are 
still produced as a by-product in the manufacture of near beer, etc. 
It is superior to wheat bran, for it contains over 70 per ct. more di- 
gestible cnide protein and slightly more total digestible nutrients. 

Malt sprouts.— Tho not especially palatable, malt sprouts may be 
successfully fed to dairy cows when mixed with other feeds, if not over 
'A to 3.5 lbs. are fed per head daily.^ As malt sprouts swell greatly 
on absorbing water they should be soaked before feeding to avoid 
digestive disturl)ances, when over 2 lbs. daily are fed. 

Cottonseed meal. — Experience has shown that cottonseed meal may 
be fed to dairy cows in properly balanced rations for years with no 

^ Informatiuu to the authors, s Hills, Vt. Kept. 11)01. ■* Lindsoy, :\rass. Bui. !)4. 



FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 271 

ill effect. This is most fortunato, since this highly nitrogenous feed 
is usually the cheapest source of protein in the South and often like- 
wise in the North. Owing to its richness in protein, cottonseed meal 
is even more valuable than linseed meal for balancing rations low in 
this nutrient, and is worth considerably more than gluten feed or 
dried distillers' grains. Since cottonseed meal is constipating it 
should be fed with laxative concentrates, such as linseed meal or wheat 
bran, or with succulent feed, such as silage or roots. The milk of 
cows heavily fed on cottonseed meal yields a hard, tallowy butter, 
light in color and poor in flavor. If a moderate allowance is fed in 
a properly balanced ration, the quality is not injured and may 
even be improved if the other feeds tend to produce a soft butter. 
Some authorities recommend feeding no more than 2 to 3 lbs. of 
cottonseed meal per head daily. However, when this highly nitrog- 
enous, heavy feed is mi.xed with others which are bulky and lower 
in protein and the cows are fed silage or other succulence, as much 
as 4 lbs. of the meal has been fed daily to large cows with good 
results. At the North Carolina Station ^ a mixture of equal parts 
cottonseed meal, dried beet pulp, and dried distillers' grains was 
highly satisfactory when fed with corn silage. A rdixture of cotton- 
seed meal, corn meal, and wheat bran also gave good results. 

Linseed meal. — This slightly laxative, cooling, protein-rich concen- 
trate is one of the best dairy feeds, but its popularity usually makes 
it more expensive than some of the other protein-rich feeds which 
are usually available. Nevertheless, 1 to 2 lbs. per head daily is 
often advisable on account of its tonic and laxative effect, especially 
with cows out of condition and those soon to freshen. Linseed meal 
tends to produce a soft butter and therefore may be advantageously 
added to rations tliat produce a tallowy product. 

Dried distillers' grains. — Previous to natioiud prohibition, dried 
distillers' grains were extensively employed for feeding dairy 
cows. Corn distillers' grains are slightly more valuable than gluten 
feed, but furnish less protein than cottonseed meal or linseed meal. 
The rye distillers' grains are of lower value than those chiefly from 
corn. At the Kentucky Station ° it was found that some cows would 
not eat large allowances of dried distillers' grains until they became 
accustomed to the slightly sour smell and taste. 

Soybeans; soybean meal or cake. — Ground soybeans have proved 
slightly superior to cottonseed meal when not over 2 to 3.4 lbs. were 
fed mixed with other concentrates. Too large an allowance of soy- 
beans makes soft butter. This fault can be corrected by feeding 
them with cottonseed meal. 

5 Proc. Amer. Soc. Anim. Prod. 1914. 6 Hooper, Ky. Bui. 171. 



272 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABKIDGED 

Soybean meal or cake, from wliicli the fat has been extracted, does 
not make soft butter, and is sliylitly more vahuil)le than cottonseed 
meal. 

Cocoanut meal. — When no more than 3 to 4 lbs. per head daily 
is fed, cocoanut meal produces a firm butter of excellent quality. 
More may make too hard a butter. Cocoanut meal is about equal to 
gluten feed for dairy cows. 

III. Hay from the Legumes 

Legume hay for the dairy cow. — Over much of this country the 
Indian-corn plant provides the cheapest, most abundant, and most 
palatable carbohydrates the farmer can produce, but it falls short in 
furnishing protein, so vital in milk production. Happily, wherever 
corn flourishes at least one of the legumes — alfalfa, clover, cowpeas, 
vetch, etc. — can be grown to meet this deficiency. High in crude 
protein and mineral matter, especially lime, the legume hays aid 
greatly in reducing the amount of expensive protein-rich concen- 
trates needed to provide a properly balanced ration for dairy cows. 
The following articles show tiiat when plenty of good legume hay and 
silage from nearly matured and well-eared corn is supplied, only half 
as much concentrates need be fed as when only carbonaceous rough- 
ages are used. 

Alfalfa hay. — Good alfalfa hay heads the list of roughages suitable 
for tlie dairy cow, on account of its high content of protein and its 
palatability. Leafy, early-cut alfalfa hay is the best for dairy cattle. 
The value of this hay in balancing rations otherwise low in protein 
is shown in a trial at the Ohio Station ^ in which 2 lots each of 6 cows 
were fed the rations shown below for 56 days: 

Alfalfa hay as source of protein for dairy coirs 

Average daily yield 
Average ration Milk Fat Nutritive 

Lbs. L)js. ratio 

Lot I 

Alfalfa hay, 1 1 .6 lbs. 

Corn silage, 27.8 lbs. Corn meal, .5.0 lbs 22.0 0.87 1 :7.0 

Lot II 

Corn stover, 5.G lbs. Cottonseed meal, 3.1 lbs. 

Corn silage, 29.3 lbs. Wheat bran, 3.1 lbs. 

Corn meal, 3.1 lbs 20.5 0.00 1 :5.7 

The ration fed Lot I — alfalfa hay, corn silage, and corn meal — 
would undoubtedly have been improved had a greater variety of 
concentrates been fed, yet with alfalfa hay as the sole supplement, 

7 Caldwell, Ohio Bui. 267. 



FEEDS FOR THE DAll.'Y COW 273 

a well-balanced ration was in-ovided which produced substantially as 
good results as that fed Lot II, in whieh wlieat bran and cottonseed 
meal furnished most of the protein. AVliile Jiot 11 was fed 0.3 lbs. 
of rich concentrates, Lot 1 received only 5.1) Ihs. of corn meal. 

Similar results have been secured in other trials where alfalfa hay 
has replaced half or even somewhat more of the concentrates usually 
fed. 

Substituting alfalfa hay for all the concentrates. — In a still more 
drastic trial of the value of alfalfa hay for milk production at the 
New Jersey Station ® all the concentrates for one lot of cows were 
replaced by alfalfa hay, as shown in the table: 

Replacing all the concentrate allowance with alfalfa hay 

Average daily yield Feed cost 
Average ration Milk Fat per 100 

lbs. milk * 
Lbs. Lbs. Cents 

Ration I 

Corn stover, 6.8 lbs. Distillers' grains, 4.0 lbs. 
Corn sila2;o, 40.0 lbs. Wheat bran, 4.2 lbs. 

Cottonseed meal, O..! 11). 24. () 1.07 8.*]. 7 

Ration II 
Alfalfa hay, 17.5 lbs. 
Corn silage, 3.3.0 lbs. Xo concentrates 20.4 0.S8 04.4 

* Co.st of fcf^ds per ton: alfalfa hay, $1G; corn silage, $.'! ; corn stover, $4; distillers' grains, 
$30; wheat bran, $'J4 ; and coltonscetl meal, $:J4. 

In tliis trial when the cows were fed Ration II, containing a heavy 
allowance of alfalfa ha}^ with no concentrates, the yield of milk was 
17 per ct. and of fat 18 per ct. less than when Ration I, containing 
over 9 lbs. of purchased protein-rich concentrates, was fed. AVitli 
feeds at the prices stated, milk was produced more cheaply on Ration 
I. The relative economy of such rations obviously depends on the 
price of alfalfa hay compared with concentrates. 

The preceding trials show that alfalfa ha^^ can be substituted for 
a large part of the concentrates in the ration of the dairy cow with- 
out materially reducing the yield of milk or fat. However, when all 
the concentrates are so replaced the yield of cows of good productive 
capacity is markedly decreased. This is reasonable, for, tho stand- 
ing at the head of all roughages, alfalfa ha}^ is nevertheless a rough- 
age and not a concentrate. It contains about 3 times as much fiber as 
wheat bran and furnishes but 70 per ct. as much net energy. Bearing 
in mind the productive capacity of his cows and the price of legume 
hay compared with concentrates, each dair^-man must decide for him- 
self to what extent it is economical to substitute legume hay for 
concentrates. 

8 Billings, N. J. Bui. 204. 



274 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



111 some sections of the "West, owing to the cheapness of alfalfa 
hay, dairy cows are given this feed alone, possibly with green alfalfa 
soilage or pasturage in addition during the summer. Complaints 
are made that this unbalanced ration, which is too high in protein 
and too low in net nutrients, does not always maintain the animals 
in as good health as where concentrates or even roughages lower in 
protein are added. 

Alfalfa meal. — In view of the palatability of alfalfa hay to the 
dairy cow and its thoro mastication during rumination, alfalfa meal 




Fig. 76. — Dairy Cows Utilizing Lamd Unsuited for Tillage 

One of llie jircat advantages of live stock is that they can graze upon hind 
unsuited for tillage. (From KimhaU's Dairy Farmer.) 



is ordinarily not economical when good alfalfa hay is available, for 
the tine grinding does not increase its value. 

Clover hay. — Hay from the clovers, cut wdiile yet in bloom, is 
one of the best roughages for dairy cows. Tho somewhat lower than 
alfalfa hay in protein, red clover hay furnishes a slightly larger 
amount of net energy. By the use of clover hay — red, alsike, or 
crimson — the amount of concentrates needed to supply a well-balanced 
ration can be reduced just as when alfalfa hay is used. For example, 



FEEDS FOR THE DAIKY COW 275 

in a trial at the New Jersey Station" cows fed 16.4 lbs. of crimson 
clover hay and 'M lbs. of corn silage per head daily with no con- 
centrates gave 15 per ct. less milk than when fed 6 lbs. of wheat bran, 
5 lbs. dried brewers' grains, 30 lbs. corii silage and 5 lbs. mixed hay. 
Replacing the concentrates by crimson clover hay, however, effected 
a saving of over 18 cents in the feed cost of prodnciiig 100 lbs,, of 
milk. 

Hay from other legumes. — In the South, the cowpea, which thrives 
on all types of soil, is of great importance to the dairy industry, as 
it furnishes palatable hay rich in protein. This may be used just like 
alfalfa or clover ha}^ in replacing protein-rich concentrates. In a 
trial at the New Jersey Station ^" a ration of 17 lbs. cowpea hay and 
36 lbs. corn silage produced but 2 lbs. less milk and 0.13 lb. less fat 
per cow daily than a ration of 9 lbs. of protein-rich concentrates, 
36 lbs. corn silage, and 5 lbs, corn stover. jMilk was produced cheap- 
est on the home-grown ration. Whore they thrive soi/hcaiis, vetch, 
atid field peas all furnish excellent prolcin-rich hay for dairy cows. 

IV. Carbonaceous Roughages 

Corn fodder. — Tho inferior to com silage, good corn fodder, espe- 
cially that from thickly planted corn, is relished by cows and is a 
satisfactory substitute for hay from the grasses. In a trial at the 
Pennsylvania Station ^^ corn fodder proved practically e(iual to 
timothy hay, and twice as much can ordinarily be produced on a given 
area. Rather than being fed as the sole roughage, it should prefer 
ably be used wdth legume hay. 

Corn stover. — In trials at the Wisconsin Station ^- 1 ton of mixed 
clover and timothy hay proved equal to 3 tons of \uieut corn stover, 
and clear clover hay was somewhat more valuable. Thirty-four per 
ct. of the coarse, uncut stover was left uneaten. Had the material 
been cut, the cows would have wasted somewhat less and the stover 
would then have had a higher value. These trials show the heavy 
losses in feeding dry corn forage, while if the forage were ensiled, 
practically all would be consumed. 

Timothy hay. — While timothy hay is a standard roughage for the 
horse, it is unsatisfactory for the dairy cow. It lacks protein, is not 
very palatable to cows, and has a constipating effect quite opposite to 
the beneficial action of legume hay. The value of mixed clover and 
timothy hay for cows will depend on the proportion of clover present. 
To show the poor results secured wdien timothy hay is fed with 

9 Lane, X. J. Bui. Ifil. ii Hunt and Caldwell, Penn. Rpt. 1S02. 

10 Lane, X. J., Bui. 174. 12 The senior author, \Yis. Rpt. 1884. 



27G FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

other feeds likewise low in protein, the llliuois Station ^^ conducted 
a trial on a (hiiry i'arm witli 2 lots, each of 8 cows. Tlicy were fed 
10 1I)S. of either timothy or alfalfa hay per head daily with 10 lbs. 
corn stover and 12.5 lbs. of a concentrate mixture of 2.5 parts of corn 
meal and 1 part of wheat bran. AVhen fed the alfalfa hay ration, 
which had a initritive ratio of 1 : 6.6, the cows produced over one- 
sixth more milk than on the unbalanced timothy hay ration, the 
nutritive ratio of which was 1 : 10.2. The timothy-fed cows lost in 
weigiit and were in poor condition generally. The production would 
have been even lower had not a small amount of bran been fed. This 
trial shows clearly that wlien hay from any of the grasses must be 
fed it should be supplemented by concentrates high in protein. 

Cottonseed hulls. — Cottonseed hulls contain a fair amount of di- 
gestible carbohydrates, but are very low in crude protein and are 
rather unpalatable to cows. Southern dairymen can supply roughage 
for their herds more cheaply in the form of corn silage than by buy- 
ing cottonseed hulls. Silage is also more palatable and stimulates a 
larger flow of milk. Tho good corn stover is worth fully as much as 
cottonseed hulls, southern dairymen often leave the corn stalks in the 
field and purcliase the hulls for roughage. 

Other carbonaceous roughages. — Brome hay and upland prairie 
hay equal timotliy in value. Hay from other grasses and from the 
cereals is likewise used for feeding dairy cows. In the plains states 
fodder and stover from the sorghums are common feeds, resembling 
the forage from corn in feeding value. Straw is inferior to corn 
stover and is usuallj^ not fed in any large amount to daiiy cows in 
this country. A limited amount of good bright oat straw, however, 
often maj^ be fed with economy even to dairy cows. The cows may be 
allowed to pick over the straw and the remainder used for bedding. 

Y. Succulent Feeds 

Corn silage. — The importance of succulent feeds for milk produc- 
tion has been pointed out in the preceding chapter. Thiiiout the 
chief dairy sections of the United States, corn silage furnishes the 
cheapest form of succulence. Due largely to the fact that the silage 
made during earlier years was frequently of poor quality and fed in 
a careless manner, a widespread belief existed that silage injured 
the flavor of the milk. For many years the largest milk condensing 
company in the country prohibited the use of silage by its patrons. 
Experience has now abundantly demonstrated that when good silage 
is fed under proper conditions the quality of the milk is improved, 

l3Fraser and Ilavden, 111. Bui. 146. 



FEEDS FOlt THE DAIKY COW 277 

rather than injured. Like other feeds, silage may be abused. Only 
that which is well made should be used, and this should be fed directly 
after milking and be eaten up clean at each feeding, none being left 
scattered on the floor of the stal)le. The air of the stable should be 
kept pure and wholesome by proper ventilation. Under such con- 
ditions no one need fear ill effects from feeding silage to dairy cows, 
for when so' fed even the milk condensing factories no longer object 
to its use. The daily allowance of silage usually ranges from 20 to 
40 lbs. per 1,000 lbs. live weight. A common rule is to feed cows 
3 lbs. of silage and 1 lb. of dry roughage per 100 lbs. live Aveight. 

In 9 trials at various stations in which corn silage was compared 
with corn fodder, on the average 7.4 lbs. more milk was produced from 
each 100 lbs. of dry matter in the rations containing silage than in 
those containing fodder corn. Since silage is no more digestible than 
dry fodder, its superiority must be largely due to the fact that while 
good-quality silage is eaten with little or no waste, a considerable 
part of the com fodder is usually left uneaten. Another reason is 
that cows getting the succulent, palatable silage consume a heavier 
ration than those fed the dry fodder and hence have a larger amount 
of nutrients available for milk production after the maintenance 
requirements of the body have been met. 

Trials at the Maine and Vermont Stations" show that 280 to 350 
lbs. of corn silage is worth rather more than 100 lbs. of mixed hay. 
At the Utah Station ^^ 310 to 320 lbs. of corn silage replaced 100 
lbs. of alfalfa hay when fed in rations containing ample protein. 

Silage other than corn. — Silage from the grain sorghums and the 
sweet sorghums, cut at the proper stage of maturity, is but little 
inferior to that from corn. These crops are of great importance to 
the dairymen of the southwestern states. Clover and alfalfa are 
sometimes ensiled, tho there is far less certainty of. securing good 
silage from them than from corn or the sorghums. Such combina- 
tions as field peas with oats, soybeans or cowpeas with corn or the 
sorghums, and vetch with oats, wheat, or barley, make satisfactory 
silage, rich in protein. 

Roots. — Tho roots are excellent for dairy cows, they are little used 
in this country because corn silage furnishes much cheaper succulence. 
Tho nearly 90 per ct. of the dry matter in roots is digestible and only 
66 per ct. of that in corn silage, in actual feeding trials the dry matter 
of silage has proven fully as valuable as that in roots. Since corn 
silage contains more dry matter than roots, it is Avorth considerably 
more per ton. Sugar beets and mangels are the roots most commonly 

14 Jordan, AFaine Rpt. 1880; Hills, Vt. Pvpt. 1901. 

15 Carroll, information to tlie authors. 



278 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



fed to dairy eows, the former having the higher value per ton on ac- 
count of their less watery nature. Rutabagas and turnips should be 
fed immediately after milking to avoid tainting the milk. 

Many breeders esteem roots highly for eows which are being forced 
to the utmost production on official tests. They have a "cooling" 
effect on the digestive organs, helping to prevent digestive trouble when 
cows are fed all the rich concentrates they will consume. In addition, 
adding roots even to a palatable ration containing good com silage 
seems to slightly increase the yield of milk and fat. This small in- 




FiG. 77. — Feeding Green Corn to Keep Up the ]\Iilk Flow 

If additional feed is not supplied wlien pastures become parched in mid- 
summer, the milk flow will surely decrease and it will not be possible to bring 
the cows back to their normal yield even should the pastures improve later. 

crease may make such feeding of roots advantageous for breeders seek- 
ing high records. The practice will rarely be economical for dair}-- 
men in general, for the Michigan Station ^^ has shown that the addi- 
tional milk produced thereby will not pay for the roots fed. 

Potatoes. — A heavy allowance of potatoes produces milk of poor 
flavor. They may be used with success, however, when not over 
about 33 lbs. of cooked potatoes are fed per head daily, or somewhat 
less of the raw tubers. 

i«Shaw and Norton, Mich. Bui. 240. 



FEEDS FOil THE DAIKY COW 279 

Wet beet pulp. — Wet beet pulp is liked by cows and produces milk 
of good quality when not fed in excess. In a trial at tiie New York 
(Cornell) Station, ^^ good results were secured when cows were fed 50 
to 100 lbs. of wet beet pulp per head daily with 8 lbs. of grain and 6 
to 12 lbs. of hay. As it contains only 9 to 10 per ct. dry matter, wet 
beet pulp is worth about one-third as much as corn silage per ton. 

Soilage. — Trials at the Wisconsin ^* and Nebraska ^'-^ Stations show 
that corn silage furnishes just as satisfactory and much cheaper feed to 
supplement short summer pasture than does a succession of soiling 
crops, such as red clover, peas and oats, sweet com, and field corn. 
Where too few cows are kept to consume the silage fast enough to pre- 
vent its spoiling or where silage is not available for any other reason, 
the wise dairyman will provide a woU-planned succession of soiling 
crops to keep up the milk flow when pastures are scant. 

QUESTIONS 

1. With what other feoils slioukl corn or tlic other cereals be coiuhiiied for 
dairy cows? 

2. How does the value of hominy feed, oats, barley, wheat, rye, emmer, kalir, 
and dried beet pulp compare with that of corn? 

3. Compare the value for cows of wheat bran, gluten feed, cottonseed meal, 
linseed meal, and dried distillers' grains. 

4. Name five other protein-rich concentrates used for dairy cows and discuss 
their value. 

5. Show by giving the results of feeding trials how legume hay may be sub- 
stituted for expensive concentrates. 

G. What is the value of corn fodder, corn stover, timothy hay, and cottonseed 
hulls for cows? 

7. Discuss the value of corn silage for milk production. 

8. What other crops furnish satisfactory silage for dairy cows? 

9. Under what conditions should roots be fed to cows? 
10. Compare soilage and silage for summer feeding. 

17 Wing and Anderson, N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 1F3. 

18 WoU, Humphrey and Oosterhuis, Wis. Bui. 235. 

19 Frandsen, Hoard's Dairyman, 47, 1914, p. 403. 



CHAPTER XXII 

RAISING DAIRY CATTLE 

I. The Skim-milk Calf 

The profits of dairying depend largely on carefully rearing the 
heifer calves from the best cows in the herd. Starting Mith common 
cows, in a few years one may easil}' and economically build up a high- 
producing herd l)}"" using good pure-bred sires and steadil}' replacing 
tiie inferior cows with home-raised heifers of greater productive 
capacity. On the other hand, the dairym.an who replenishes his herd 
by purchases must pay high prices for cows and heifers, which, tho 
of good appearance, are too often poor producers. Another important 
reason for raising the heifers is that under this system it is far easier 
to keej^ the herd free from such diseases as tuberculosis and contagious 
abortion. The prudent dair3anan accordingly first sees that the 
calves are" well-bred and then so feeds and cares for them that they 
are not stunted, but reach full development. 

Raising calves on skim milk. — The fat of milk is so valuable that 
but few dairy calves are now raised on whole milk. Scientific trials 
and practical experience alike show that with proper feeding calves 
changed to skim milk when but a few wrecks old develop into just as 
good cows as those fed whole milk until weaning time. Due to the 
removal of most of the fat, skim milk contains a much larger propor- 
tion of protein than whole milk, and has a nutritive ratio of 1:1.5 
compared with 1 : 4.4 for unskimmed milk. Accordingly, in choosing 
supplements to feed with skim milk the need is not for additional pro- 
tein, but for an abundance of energy-giving, easily digested carbohy- 
drates or fat to replace the fat removed from the whole milk. AVhilc 
various fats and oils may be used to supplement skim milk, the cereal 
grains, rich in carbohydrates, are cheaper and more satisfactory for 
calf feeding. 

Starting- the calf on whole milk. — The skim-milk calf is usually 
allowed to get its milk from the dam for 2 or 3 days, tho many dairy- 
men claim that if never allowed to draw milk from the mother, it 
learns more readily to drink from the pail. In any event, the calf 
should always get the first milk, or colostrinn, Avhich is designed b.y 
Nature for cleansing the bowels and starting the digestive functions. 

280 



RAISING DAIRY CATTLE 



281 



If the cow is a heavy milker the calf should not be allowed to gorge 
lest scours result. After each feeding the cow should be stripped 
clean. "When the cow 's udder is caked, leaving the calf with her will 
3,id in reducing inflammation. 

The calf is best taught to drink milk from the pail by using the 
fingers. If it goes 12 to 24 hours without being fed, or until it be- 
comes genuinely hungry, much less difficulty will be experienced in 
the first lesson. Many of the calf feeding devices on the market are 
u'lsatisfactory, and all are dangerous unless extreme care is exer- 
ci?ed in cleansing and sterilizing them. 




Fig. 78. — Thrifty, Promising Heifers Raised on Skim IMilk 

With proper feeding and care, skim milk cah'es develop into just as good cowe 
as those fed whole milk until weaning time. (From Wisconsin Station.) 

The young calf has a small stomach and naturally takes milk fre- 
quently and in small quantities. Too large an allowance of milk 
produces indigestion and scours. For the first day or two only 5 to 
6 lbs. should be fed, or somewhat more for a large, lu.sty calf, the 
allowance being divided between 2 feedings, tho some advocate feed- 
ing 3 jr 4 times a day at first. The milk should be as fresh as pos- 
sible and at blood heat, as determined by a thermometer. The allow- 
ance of milk should be gradually increased, but over-feeding, a com- 
mon cause of poor success in calf rearing, should be avoided. A 



282 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

safe rule is always to keep the calf a little huiigr}'. Calves should be 
fed individually, the allowance for each being measured or weighed, 
and the amount fed depending on the size and vigor of the individual. 
Guernsey and Jersey calves require not over 8 to 10 lbs. daily for the 
first 3 to 4 weeks, and those of the larger breeds not over 10 to 12 l])s. 

Feeding skim milk. — When the calf is from 2 to 4 weeks old, skim 
milk may gradually replace the whole milk at the rate of 0.5 to 1 lb. 
per day, a week or 10 days being required for the change. With very 
rich milk, some prefer to dilute wnth skim milk from the start. A 
few breeders feed some whole milk for as long as 2 months. 

After changing to skim milk the allowance may be increased grad- 
ually, but should not exceed 18 lbs. daily until the calf is 6 weeks old, 
and only in rare cases .should over 20 lbs. daily be fed. Skim milk is 
at its best when, still warm, it goes at once from the farm separator to 
the calf. jNlilk held for any length of time or chilled should always 
be warmed to blood temperature, or about 100° F., before feeding. 
Wh«n the calf is 3 to 4 months old it may be accustomed to cooler 
milk provided the temperature is reasonably uniform. The pails in 
which the milk is fed should be kept scrui)ulously clean. Feeding 
cold skim milk or that which is sour, stale, and swarming with unde- 
sirable bacteria is the common cause of scours. Patrons of creameries 
should insist that all skim milk be pasteurized before it is returned 
to the farm. This precaution not only keeps the milk sweet longer 
but it kills the disease-producing bacteria, thereby lessening trouble 
from scours and preventing the possible introduction of tuberculosis. 
Skim-milk feeding should usually continue for 8 to 10 months, but 
when the supply of milk is scant a thrifty calf may be weaned after 
3 months, provided good substitutes for milk are fed, as shown later. 

At feeding time hand-reared calves should be confined in stanchions, 
to remain for a time after the milk is drunk until they consume their 
concentrate allowance and overcome the desire to suck each other's 
ears or udders. AVhen this precaution is neglected, the shape of the 
udder may be injured or a heifer may later persist in cucking herself 
or others. 

Feeding concentrates. — When 1 to 2 weeks old the calf should be 
taught to eat concentrates. Such feeds as corn meal, sieved ground 
oats, barley meal, kafir meal, wheat bran, red dog flour, and linseed 
meal, alone or in mixture, may be placed in the bottom of the pail 
after the calf has finished drinking its milk. Some add the concen- 
trates to the milk, but this is inadvisable for the meal is then less 
thoroly mixed with the saliva. The addition of such concentrates as 
bran or linseed meal to the farm grains may be helpful in teaching 
the calf to eat. The dull calf may be taught to eat the meal by rub- 



RAISING DAIRY CATTLE 



283 



bing a little on its muzzle when it is thru drinking milk. Having 
learned the taste of the meal, the calf should be fed its allowance dry' 
from a convenient feed box. Until it becomes accustomed to the new 
article of diet, a supply of meal may be kept before it. After this, 
only as much should be fed as will be eaten up, and the feed box 
should be cleaned out regularly. At 6 weeks the calf will usually 
eat 0.5 lb. jf concentrates a day ; at 2 months, about 1 lb. ; and at 3 
months, 2 lbs. Unless it is desired to push the animal ahead rapidly 
no more than this need be fed the; skim-milk calf up to 6 months.^ 





"^9 




1- 


j^MBi?. . . ■ 




. 1 Irf*'-'^!!^ 




ilif '' 1 


-•'1 ' 




^^■1 





Fig. 71). — Home-]Made fSTAXciiioNs for Calves 

Calves should be confined in stanchions at feeding time until tliey eat their 
conoentratt's and overcome the desire to suck each otliers ears or udders. ( From 
Wisconsin Station.) 



Concentrates for skim-milk calves. — Since skim milk is very rich 
in protein, it is not necessary to use protein-rich feeds, such as linseed 
or flaxseed meal, as concentrates for skim-milk calves. The farm- 
grown grains, such as corn, oats, barley, and kafir, give fully as good 
results and are ordinarily the cheapest concentrates available. Mix- 
ing small amounts of such M^ell-liked feeds as linseed meal or bran 
with the grain may sometimes be advantageous to make the ration 
more palatable. In teaching calves to eat, ground grain is usuali^^ 
fed, but later whole corn or oats gives as good or even better results 

1 Eckles. Dairy Cattle and ^Nlilk Produc tioii, \> 1S4. 



284 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABKIDGED 

than the ground grain. When the calves are several months old, they 
chew their feed less thoroly and grinding oats or corn may then 
be profitable. Barley and kafir should always be ground. 

The following list by Otis - will aid dairymen in selecting feeds for 
skim-milk calves: 

"1. Corn meal gradually changed in 4 to 6 weeks to shelled corn with or 
without bran. 

"2. Whole oats and bran. 

"3. Whole oats and corn chop, the latter gradually replaced by shelled corn 
in 4 to 6 weeks. 

"4. Ground barley with bran or shelled corn. 

"5. Shelled corn and ground kafir or sorghum. 

"6. Whole oats, ground barley, and bran. 

"7. A mixture of 20 lbs. of corn meal, 20 lbs. of oat meal, 20 lbs. of oil meal, 
10 lbs. of blood meal, and 5 lbs. of bone meal, changed to corn, oats, and bran 
when calves are 3 months old. 

"8. A mixture of 5 lbs. whole oats, 3 lbs. bran, I lb. corn meal, and 1 lb. of 
linseed meal." 

Ground soybeans are unsatisfactory for calves on account of their 
laxative action. Cottonseed meal is not a safe feed for young calves, 
but after they are 6 to 8 months old they may be started on an allow- 
ance of 0.5 lb. per head daily and this may be gradually increased to 
2 lbs., when fed with silage and such feeds as shredded corn stover 
and oat straw. Dried blood is helpful for sickly calves. 

Hay for calves. — Calves begin to eat hay at about the same age as 
the}^ do grain, consuming nearly the same quantity of each at first. 
As they grow and the paunch develops, the proportion of roughage to 
concentrates should be increased until when 6 months old they will be 
consuming about 3 times as much hay as grain. The majority of 
dairymen prefer clover or alfalfa hay, but the allowance of these 
should be restricted when the calves are young, to avoid scouring. 
Some jjrefer bluegrass, native, or mixed hay for the first two or three 
months because with these there is less danger from scours. The 
growing heifer should be encouraged to eat a goodly amount of hay 
in order to develoj^ the roomy digestive tract desired in the dairy cow. 
Uneaten roughage should be removed from the rack or manger before 
the next feeding time, for calves dislike hay which has been "blown 
on." 

Succulent feeds. — A small amount of silage from well-matured 
corn, free from mold, may be fed to calves when 6 to 8 Aveeks old, only 
the leaves being oifered at first. From a handful twice a day the 
allowance of silage may be gradually increased until the calves are 
getting 10 lbs. per head daily when a year old. 

2 Wis. Bui. 192. 



RAISING DAIRY CATTLE 



285 



Roots are also a satisfactory succulent feed, aud pasture is excellent 
for calves old enough to make good use of it. To avoid scours, they 
should be accustomed to grass gradually, being turned to pasture for 
only an hour the first day. Another method is to accustom them to 
green feed by giving increasing allowances of soilage before turning 
to pasture. It is well not to turn spring or summer calves to pasture 
until they are 2 to 4 months old, for there is less trouble from scours 
and the young things suffer less from the flies and heat. 

Birth weights and gains of calves. — The average birth weight of 
calves of the leading dairy breeds is as follows : Jersey, 55 lbs. ; Guem- 




FiG. 80. — Rac?k and Trough for Feeding Hay and Grain 

The growing heifer sliould be encouraged to eat plenty of roughage in order to 
develop a roomy digestive tract. (From Hoard's Dairyman.) 



sey, 71 ; Ayrshire, 76 ; and Holstein, 89. Bull calves are heavier than 
heifers, and calves from mature cows are somewhat heavier at birth 
than those from heifers. 

Properly fed on skim milk, along with suitable grains and roughage, 
the thrifty calf should gain about 1.5 lbs. daily for the first 4 to 6 
months. The aim should be not to fatten the calf but to keep it in a 
vigorous, growling condition. 

Calves should be amply supplied with pure, fresh w^ater, a point 
which is often neglected, and as soon as they begin to eat grain and 
hay they should get salt, the same as do older aninialp. 



28G FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

II. Raising Calves on Skim-milk Substitutes 

With dairynit'ii who in'oihicc milk for city eonsuniptioii, for cheese 
makiiifi:, or for the condenserics, tiie rearing of calves on skini-niilk 
substitutes is of jireat importance. 

Buttermilk and whey. — Fresh buttermilk is perhaps the best sub- 
stitute for skim milk, but the watery slop sometimes obtained from 
creameries, often from filthy tanks, is almost sure to cause scours. 
The whey usually obtained from the cheese factory, acid and often 
loaded with germs that cause indigestion, is unsuited for calf feeding. 
Sweet, undiluted whey which has been pasteurized may give fair re- 
sults when fed under the strictest rules as to quantity, regularity of 
feeding, and cleanliness of the vessels employed. It should be re- 
membered that, instead of being a protein-rich food like skim milk, 
whey is relatively poor in this nutrient. Accordingly, instead of 
the cereal grains, feeds high in protein, such as wheat bran, wheat 
middlings, and linseed meal, should be fed with it. 

Feeding a minimum amount of milk. — In trials at the Illinois 
Station" it was found that after the dam's milk was usable calves 
could be raised successfully on a total of only 137 to 167 lbs. of whole 
milk and 378 to 491 lbs. of skim milk, with good clover hay and such 
concentrates as bran, oats, linseed meal, and corn. The method used 
was as follows : 

The calves were fed wliole milk for the first 4 days, and then, starting Avitli 
the fifth day, 10 lbs. of whole milk and 2 lbs. of skim milk was fed daily i)er 
calf for about 10 days, after which the whole milk was gradually replaced with 
skim milk at the rate of 1 lb. per day. Each calf was then fed 12 lbs. of skim 
milk per day for 20 days, or until 45 days old, when the allowance was 
reduced I lb. each day, no milk being fed after the calves were about 5G days 
old. The calves were rather thin for a time, but after being kept on pasture 
with a limited allowance of grain until 6 months old all were in good thrifty 
condition, and later several developed into good-producing cows. 

Substitutes for milk. — Various concentrate mixtures have been 
ased successfully as substitutes for milk, the calves being fed whole 
milk for only a few days and then being gradually changed to the 
substitutes. The Pennsylvania Station * secured good results with a 
home-mixed calf meal, composed of 30 parts wheat flour, 25 parts 
cocoanut meal, 20 parts skim-milk powder, 10 parts linseed meal, and 
2 parts dried blood, the mixture costing about 3 cents per pound. 
One pound of the mixture was added to 6 lbs. of hot water, and after 
stirring was cooled to blood heat before feeding. A mixture of equal 
parts of hominy meal, linseed meal, red dog flour, and blood meal has 

3 Fraser and Brand, 111. Bui. 1G4. 4 Hayward, Penn. Bui. 00 



RAISING DAIRY CATTLE 287 

proven excellent at the Indiana Station.'' As calves grow older, farm- 
grown grains, as corn and oats, should be fed in addition to tlie calf 
meal, and iinally rci)lacc it. There are on the market several calf 
meals, which are more or less complex mixtures of such feeds as lin- 
seed meal or flaxseed meal, ground cereals, and wheat by-products, 
with or without dried milk, casein, and mild drugs. They are fairly 
satisfactory substitutes for skim milk, but often give no better returns 
than home-mixed meals that are less expensive. 

Scours. — The most frequent trouble in raising calves by hand is 
indigestion, or common scours. This is usually caused by over-feed- 
ing, by the use of cold milk or that laden with disease germs, by dirty 
pails or feed boxes, by keeping calves in dark, dirty, poorly -ventilated 
stalls, or by feeding improper concentrates, or allowing uneaten feed 
to spoil in the feed box. Each animal should be watched closely for 
signs of scours, for a severe case gives the calf a set-back from which 
it recovers but slowly. At the first indication of trouble the ration 
should be reduced to less than half the usual amount. Such remedies 
as castor oil, formalin, and a mixture of salol and bismuth subnitrate 
are used with success by dairj^men. 

Common scours should be distinguished from contagious, or white, 
scours, also called calf cholera, which is due to an infection of the 
navel soon after birth. Tliis serious disease may usually be avoided 
by providing that the calf be dropped in a clean stall or on pasture. 
"When the calf is born in the barn, it is best to wet the navel thoroly 
with a disinfectant, such as a weak solution of creoline, zenoleura, or 
bichloride of mercury. 

III. Dairy Heifers; The Bull 

Feed and care of heifers. — Rearing heifers after they are 6 to 8 
months old is an easy task, and doubtless for this reason many are 
stunted for lack of suitable attention and fail to develop into as profit- 
able cow^s as they otherwise would. Heifers on good pasture usually 
require no additional feed. In winter there is no better ration than 
legume hay, silage, and sufficient grain to keep them thrifty and grow- 
ing without becoming fat. The ration should supply an abundance 
of protein and mineral matter, and hence unless legume hay forms 
the roughage the concentrate allowance should be richer in protein 
than advised for skim-milk calves. From 2 to 3 lbs. of concentrates 
with 8 to 10 lbs. of legume hay and 12 to 20 lbs. of silage, or 12 to 15 
lbs. of legume hay alone, if no silage is available, will keep them grow- 
ing thriftily the second year when not on pasture. 

sCalflweh, 'r».f^..-.rnation to the authors. 



288 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

The age at which heifers should di-op their first calf depends on 
the breed and the si/e and devel()|)iii(Mit of the individual. Jersey's 
and Guernseys which have been well-fed are usually bred to calve at 
2-1 to 30 months of age, while the slower maturing Holsteins, Ayr- 
shires, or Brown Swiss should not calve until 30 to 36 months old. 

The cost of raising heifers will vary in different regions, depending 
on the prices of feed, labor, etc. In trials in Connecticut '' and Wis- 
consin ~' the total cost of raising grade heifers to 2 years of age, includ- 
ing cost of calf, feed, labor, and barn rent, insurance, and taxes, but 
allowing credit for the value of the manure produced, was from $61 to 
over $66 per head. Some of these items are often not taken into con- 
sideration by the dairyman in estimating how much it costs to raise 
heifers. These trials show that while it certainly pa3's to raise well- 
bred heifer calves, it is far from profitable to raise those from inferior 
dams and sires. 

The bull. — The same principles apply in raising bull calves as to 
heifers, except that after 6 months of age they should be fed some- 
what more grain. The bull should be sufficiently mature for very light 
service at 10 to 12 months of age. He should be halter broken as a 
calf and when about 1 year old should have a stout ring inserted in 
his nose. lie should be so handled from calfhood that he will recog- 
nize man as his master and should never be given an opportunity to 
learn his great strength. Stall and fences should always be so 
strongl}^ built that there is no possibility of his learning how to break 
loose. 

Feed and care of the bull. — The ration for the bull in full service 
should be about the same as for a dairy cow in milk. He should be 
given good legume haj^ or hay from mixed legumes and grasses and 
fed from 4 to 8 lbs. of concentrates, supplying an ample amount of 
protein. When idle or but in partial service less concentrates will be 
required. The bull may be fed 10 to 15 lbs. of good corn silage each 
day * but more is said to in.jure his breeding powers. The bull should 
be tied by a strong halter to one end of the manger and hy his ring 
to the other end, so that the attendant may approach him from either 
side without danger. The bull should be dehorned and should always 
be handled with a strong, safe staff. Even with a quiet, peaceable bull 
safety lies only in handling him without displaying fear and yet as 
if he were watching for an opportunity to gore his attendant. Nearly 
all the accidents occur with "quiet" bulls that have been too much 
trusted. 

cTrueman, Conn. (Storrs) Bui. 63. 

7 Bennett and Cooper, U. S. Dept. A^r. Bui. 49. 

8 Hoard's Dairyman, 4G, 1914, p. 339. , 



RAISING DAIRY CATTLE 289 

To maintain healtli and virility, the bull must have ample exercise. 
This is perhai)s most conveniently furnished by a tread power, where 
he may run the separator, pump water, do other useful work, or run 
the power for exercise only. Many declare that the purchase of a 
tread power merely to furnish exercise for the bull is a wise invest- 
ment. Others fix a long- sweep on a post and tie the bull at the end, 
allowing him to walk around the circle. Another device is a light 
cable stretched between 2 high posts, the bull being attached to it by a 
sliding cliain so that he is able to walk back and forth the length of 
the cable. The bull may also be harnessed and hitched to cart or 
wagon for such odd jobs as hauling manure or feed. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why should dairymen roar the heifer calves from their best cows? 

2. Describe the manner in whieli you would feed a skim-milk calf from birth. 
:1. Name several concentrates or mixtures of concentrates satisfactory for 

feedinjif to calves being raised on skim milk. 

4. Tell about the hays and succulent feeds useful for calf feeding. 

5. Wliat is the average birth weight of calves of tlie four leading dai.-y breeds, 
and how large gains should well-fed calves make? 

0. Name the most common causes of trouble with skim-mjlk fed calves. 

7. Discuss the feeding of buttermilk and whey to calves. 

8. How may calves be raised on l)ut a minimum of milk? 
n. Give the ingredients in a satisfactory calf meal. 

10. How may common scours and contagious scours usually be prevented? 

11. Discuss the feeding and care of dairy heifers; of the bull. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

FEKDIXd AND ('A1M<: OF BEKF CATTLE 

T. I^'actors Ixflttencing 1>i:i;i' Piionrc'riox 

In 1000 there Avere ahout 660 ealtle, other than miU-li cows, per 
1,000 inhabitants in tliis eonntry, bnt in 1!)10 the number had de- 
creased to -1:50. Later the war-time urge for more beef for export has 
caused a temporary increase in the number of beef cattle. Among the 
reasons for the failure of the number of beef cattle to keep pace with 
population are the breaking up of the western ranges into farms, the 
liigii prices for grain and the consequent tendency of farmers to sell 
their crops rather than feed them to stock, the increase of tenant 
fannei's, wlio often lack capital to stock their farms properly, the ex- 
pansion of dairying due to the increasing demand for dairy products, 
and the fact that not infrequently the fat steer is sold at a loss. 

Fortunately for the American public, our experiment stations are 
pointing out how the cost of beef production may be brought down to 
where it may yield a reasonable profit to the farmer without the 
finished product being unduly co.stly to the consumer. The trials re- 
viewed in these chapters show how the breeding herd may be maiii- 
tained cheaply by utilizing the roughage which would otherwise be 
wasted on the farm, and the steer finished for market on a smaller al- 
lowance of concentrates than was formerly believed necessar}'. 

Phases of beef production. — Tho many cattle are still fattened by 
the farmers who raise them, beef production has naturalh^ become 
separated to a considerable extent into two distinct phases. In re- 
gions where the land is unsuited for tillage, due either to its rough 
nature or the scant rainfall, breeding herds are maintained and the in- 
crease, raised chiefly on the cheap pasturage, sold as feeder steers. 
On the other hand, in the com belt, where corn is cheap cimipared 
with pasturage, the majority of the steers fattened are shipped in 
from the range districts, where they can be raised at less cost. A few 
years ago the steer feeding business had largely passed into tlie hands 
of professional feeders who fattened several carloads each year. In 
many instances they made little use of the manure produced and pur- 
chased much of their feed. On such a basis the enterprise was'largely 
speculative. Fortunately, tlie practice has increased for farmers 

290 



FEEDING AND CARE OF BEEF CATTLE 291 

to fatten a carload or two of steers each year to provide a farm market 
for grain and rongliage and thns conserve the soil fertility. 

Margin. — Under usual eondilions, the feed consumed by fattening 
cattle or sheep per 100 lbs. of gain costs moi-e than the selling 
price per cwt. of llie finished animal. With normal market condi- 
tions, tliis difference is offset by the fattened animals selling for a 
higher price per 100 lbs. than was paid for the same animals as 
feeders. The difference between the cost per cwt. of the feeder and 
the selling price per cwt. of the same animal when fattened is called 
the margin. The principle of the margin may be illustrated thus: 
If a 900-lb. steer costs $7.00 per cwt. w^hen placed in the feed lot, 
its total cost is $63.00. If during fattening it gains 300 lbs. at a feed 
cost of $36.00, each cwt. of gain has cost $12.00. Assuming that the 
manure produced by the steers and the pork made by the pigs fol- 
lowing the steers will pay for the labor and the miscellaneous ex- 
penses, the steer, now weighing 1,200 lbs., has cost $99.00 and ac- 
cordingly must bring $8.25 per cwt. at the feed lot to even the trans- 
action. The margin will be $1.25, the difference between $8.25 and 
$7.00. Due to the high cost of the gains, a margin is usually neces- 
sary in fattening cattle or sheep to make a profit or ' ' break even. ' ' 

The factors which determine the margin needed in fattening are: 
(1) the initial cost of the cattle; (2) their initial weight; (3) the cost 
of the gains; and (4) the expense of getting the steers to the feed 
lot and then to the market, wdien finished. 

Other conditions remaining the same, the higher the initial cost 
or purchase price of the feeder the narrower, or smaller, is the neces- 
sary margin. For example, let us assume that this same steer had 
cost $9.00 per cwt. when placed in the feed lot in place of $7.00 
per cwt. Making the same gain as before and at the same cost for 
feed, it would have to sell for $117.00, or $9.75 per cwt., to break 
even on the transaction. The necessary margin would then be $9.75 
minus $7.00, or only $.75 per cwt. 

The heavier the animal is when placed on feed the narrower will 
be the neces.sary margin, for the increased selling price is secured for 
a greater number of pounds of initial weight. This factor may be 
offset, as is shown later, if the heavier cattle are older and hence 
make more expensive gains. 

It is e^adent that any factor which increases the feed cost of the 
gains makes necessaiy a wider margin. The necessary margin is 
thus greater when feeds are high in price, and also with mature 
animals than with younger ones, which make more economical gains. 
Since gains made on grass are usually cheaper than in the dry lot, a 



2!)2 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



wider margin is ro'jnired for winter feeding- than in fattening ani- 
mals on pasture. The higlier tlie degree of finish, or fatJiess, the 
more expensive the gains beeonie and the wider the neeessary margin. 
Feed requirements for fattening cattle. — In Chapter V we have 
already seen that with mature animals there is comparatively little 
storage of protein or mineral matter during fattening and that the 
ration may have a relatively wide nutritive ratio. However, most of 
the beef cattle in this country are now fattened before they are full- 
grown. For the fattening of such animals sufficient protein must be 
provided for the growth in muscle and other protein tissues which 
takes place as the animals fatten. From an extensive survey of feed- 
ing trials at the experiment stations, the authors believe that for the 




Fig. 81. — Championship Yearling Fat Steeks at the 
International 

Yearlings usually make less expensive gains than older steers, but require a 
soniowliat longer feeding j^eriod to reach the same finisli. 



most rapid gains in fattening 2-year-old steers the nutritive ratio 
should not be wider than 1 : 7 to 1:7.8. (See Appendix Table V.) 
When protein-rich feeds are lower in price than carbonaceous feeds, 
it may be economical to feed much narrower rations than this. For 
example, good results are secured wlien cottonseed meal is fed as the 
only concentrate, the nutritive ratio then being as narrow as 1 : 3.8. 
As is shown later in this chapter, the amount of concentrates to be 
fed will depend on the rapidity with which it is desired to fatten tht 
cattle, and the degree of finish or fatness which the demands of the 
market make most profitable. 

Influence of age on cost of fattening. — In Chapter V we have al- 
ready seen that young, growing animals make much larger gains 



FEEDING AND CARE OF BEEF CATTLE 293 

from each 100 lbs. of feed than those which are more mature. As 
this subject is of much importance in beef production, many trials 
have been conducted to compare the economy of gains and the profits 
from fattening cab'es, yearlings, 2-year-olds, and older cattle. The 
following table averages the results secured in two trials of this 
nature at the Indiana Station ^ with well-bred beef steers fed until 
they were thoroly fattened. 

Fattening calves, yearlings, and 2-year-olds 

Calves Yearlings 2-yr.-olds 

Av. initial weight, lbs 518 888 1,067 

Length of feeding period, months 9 6.5 6 

Av. daily gain, lbs 1.88 2.22 2.6 

Av. total gain, lbs 508 431 471 

Feed per 100 lbs. gain by steers: 

Shelled corn, lbs 596 704 681 

Cottonseed meal, lbs 88 111 108 

Clover hay, lbs 1(58 ](i5 100 

Corn silage, lbs 385 660 573 

Feed cost per 100 lbs. gain * $7.74 $9.09 $9.37 

Pork per bushel of corn fed to steers, lbs.* 1.00 1.85 2.50 

* Av. of 3 trials. 

While it required only 6 months to make the 2-year-old steers 
fat enough to sell as prime beeves, it took 9 months to finish the 
rapidlj^ growing calves equally well. Tho the dailj^ gain per head 
increased with the age of the steers, the older ones required con- 
siderably more feed per 100 lbs. gain, and thus made more expensive 
gains. Other trials have shown that the gains of 3-year-olds are 
still more expensive than those of 2-year-olds. As is usual, the older 
steers in this trial masticated the shelled corn less thoroly, and hence 
the pigs following them made more pork from each bushel of corn 
fed the steers. 

Calves usually cost more per 100 lbs. as feeders than do yearlings 
or 2-year-olds, but when fat sell at about the same price per 100 
lbs. as the older animals. This may entirely offset the cheaper gains 
made by them. For example, in these trials the 2-year-olds returned 
the largest and the calves the smallest profit per head. In addition, 
greater care and skill are required to fatten calves, they do not stand 
severe weather so well, and must be fed a larger proportion of grain 
to roughage than the more mature feeders. For these reasons, the 
great majority of experienced farmers who buy feeder steers to 
fatten prefer 2-year-olds, On the other hand, many farmers who 
raise their own steers on high-priced land find it most profitable to 
produce baby beef, selling the animals when 18 months old or less. 

1 Skinner and Cochel, Ind. Bui. 146. 



294 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



Influence of degree of finish.— Impelled by a hearty appetite, 
under liberal feeding the steer at first lays on fat rapidly, storing it 
everywhere within the bod3\ When it has bi^come fairly well-fleshed 
the appetite loses its edge, and the steer shows a daintiness in taking 
his food not at first noticed. Every pound of increase now takes 
more feed than formerly. This is not only because the steer eats 
less feed per 1,000 lbs. body weight and hence has less available for 
making body tissue, but also because gains at the close of the fattening 
period are more concentrated ; i.e., contain less water and a larger 
proportion of fat. The fattening process may be likened to inflating 




Fig. 82. — Championship 2-Year-Old Fat Steers at the 
•International 

The jireat majority of exporionced farmers wlio buy feeder steers to fatten 
picfer 2-year-olds. Many of tliose who raise their own feeders on high-priced 
land find it more profitable to fatten the animals as baby beef. 



a football — the operation, easy and rapid at first, grows more and 
more difflcult until the limit is reached. 

Tho the large markets demand well-fatted steers, to meet the de- 
mand it is not necessary to carry them to extreme fatness, which 
means exceedingly expensive gains. The wise feeder will therefore 
watch the market and sell his animals as soon as they are sufficiently 
finished to meet its demands, unless a probable decided advance in 
price warrants holding them longer. At this stage sufficient fat will 
have been deposited between the bundles of muscle fibers to give the 
characteristic "marbled" appearance and make the meat more tender 
and palatable. As we have seen in Chai)ter V, this is the primary 
object of fattening meat-producing animals. 

Lengtn of feeding period. — The length of the feeding period 



FEEDING AND CARE OF BEEF CATTLE 



295 



needed to finish cattle depends on the method of feeding followed 
and on the age and condition of the cattle when placed on feed. 
When the steers are fed roughage with only a limited allowance of 
concentrates, the fattening process will take considerably longer than 
where they are rapidl}^ brought to full feed and then crowded with 
all the concentrates they will eat. Obviously, much less time is re- 
quired to finish steers already in good flesh when started on feed than 
those in leaner condition. Such fleshy feeders are commonly "short- 
fed ; ' ' i.e., fed for 90 to 100 days or less on a heavy allowance of con- 
centrates. Thin steers must be "long-fed;" i.e., fed for a consider- 
ably longer period, during the first part of which often little or no 
grain is fed other than that in the silage. 




Fig. 83. — Championship 3-Year-Old Steers at the International 

steers of this age are continually becoming more scarce on the market, due 
to the fact that they produce beef less economically than younger animals. 

As we have alreadj^ seen, the younger the steers are, the longer 
they must be fed to reach a given finish. AVhile it ordinarily re- 
quires 3 to 4 months to finish mature steers and 4 to 7 months for 2- 
year-olds, it takes 9 months or longer to fatten calves. 

Limiting- the concentrate allowance. — To reduce the amount of 
grain required, cattle are often fed hay and silage during the first 
part of the fattening period, with but little or no concentrates, even 
if they are later finished on all the concentrates they will eat. 
"Whether this system will be more profitable than bringing the cattle 
rapidly to a full feed of concentrates, depends on the relative cost 
of roughages and concentrates. In three trials at the Indiana Sta- 
tion ^ the steers in one lot were fed only clover hay and corn silage, 

2 Skinner and King, Ind. Buls. 153, 1G3, 107. 



206 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

during the first 60 to 70 days, or else clover hay, corn silage, and 2.5 
lbs. of cottonseed meal i)er 1,000 lbs. live weight in addition to balance 
the ration, and were then finished on the same feeds with all the corn 
they would eat. Another lot was fed an unlimited allowance of corn 
from the first. Tho the steers in the first lot made slightly cheaper 
gains, they returned less profit than those fed all the corn they 
would eat. On the other liand, in ti-ials at the Pennsylvania^ and 
Iowa* Stations, limiting the allowance of concentrates during the 
first of the fattening period returned larger profits. 

In former years steers were commonly finished on all the corn or 
other concentrates they would eat, but with feeds at the high prices 
during 1917 to 1920, it was frequently more profitable to restrict the 
allowance of concentrates, even during the latter part of the fattening 
period. In fattening steers 2 years old or more, the most profit could 
then often be made, even, in the corn belt, on a ration of well-eared 
corn silage, hay, and enough linseed or cottonseed meal to balance the 
ration, but with no corn grain except that in the silage. The amount 
of concentrates to be fed should be governed by the relative prices of 
concentrates and roughages, by the difference in price paid for well- 
finished cattle and for those carrying only a moderate amount of fat, 
and by the length of time before it is desired to have the cattle ready 
for market. (See Pages 318-19.) 

Value of breed in beef making. — Experience teaches that "blood 
tells" in beef production, but the reasons commonly given for the 
superiority of beef-bred animals are not all valid. Occasionally, the 
claim is yet made that well-bred beef cattle eat less than scrubs. 
Feeding trials have shown instead that they are heartier eaters, for 
they have greater ability to digest feed and economically convert it 
into meat, and consequently make more rapid gains than scrubs. 
Dairy-bred steers, especially those of the larger breeds, may make 
as large gains as beef -bred steers. This is reasonable, for in de- 
veloping both beef and dairy breeds one of the chief objects has been 
to secure animals with large capacity for utilizing feed. In this tho 
scrub is apt to be lacking. 

Experienced feeders know that beef -bred steers ''mature" or be- 
come well fattened earlier than others. Indeed, only blocky calves 
of beef conformation are suited for early fattening as baby beef. 
Tho dairy steers grow rapidly, they do not become well finished at 
an early age. Other important points of superiority for beef-bred 

^Cochel, Peiin. Bui. 118; and Tomliave, information to the authors. 
* Pew, Evvard, and Diinn, Iowa Bui. 182. 



FEEDING AND CARE OF BEEF CATTLE 297 

steers over scrubs and those of the dairy breeds are that they yield 
a higher percentage of dressed carcass, with less internal fat, which 
brings a low price, and a somewhat higher percentage of loins and 
ribs, the most valuable cuts. ]\ioreover, the thick-fleshed cuts from 
well-finished beef steers are superior in quality to the thin-fleshed 
cuts of steers lacking beef blood, and consequently bring a higher 
price on discriminating markets. 

For the beef producer who raises the animals he fattens, it is evi- 
dent that well-bred specimens of the beef breeds are the most profit- 
able. The question is more complicated for one who purer Hses feed- 
ers on the market. He must consider the price at which he can se- 
cure the various grades and their probable selling price when fat- 
tened. Opportunities for larger profits and larger losses as well lie 
with the better grades of feeders. The beginner is therefore wise in 
first handling feeders of the commoner kinds, which must be pur- 
chased at correspondingly lower prices, since the margin for proHt 
in feeding low-grade cattle is usually small. 

Shelter. — Trials at several stations in which steers have been fat- 
tened in open sheds with adjacent yards in comparison with others 
housed in barns show that the fattening steer, consuming an abundant 
ration, a considerable portion of which is roughage, has no need for 
warm winter quarters. AVith such animals sufficient heat is produced 
in the body thru the mastication, digestion, and assimilation of the 
food to keep them warm under all ordinary weather conditions, with- 
out diminishing the amount of net nutrients available for fattening. 
A reasonable degree of cold is a benefit rather than a detriment, pro- 
viding the coats of the animals are kept dry. Feeding in open yards 
with no shelter other than windbreaks is common in western sections 
with little rainfall, even in regions with rigorous winters. For humid 
regions with severe winters an open shed should be provided where 
the animals may find shelter from storms. In the South where the 
winters are mild the saving thru providing shelter may not be suffi- 
cient to warrant the expense. 

The self feeder. — By the use of a self feeder, a large box or bin 
so arranged that the grain passes down into the feed trough as 
rapidly as it is consumed, it is necessary to supply fattening cattle 
with concentrates only twice a week. In a trial at the Illinois Sta- 
tion ^ one lot of steers was fed whole clover hay and a concentrate 
mixture of 7 parts ground corn and 1 part linseed meal separately 
at regular feeding periods twice daily, while another was supplied 
chaffed (cut) hay mixed with the concentrates, the wdiole being fed 
in a self feeder to which the cattle had access at all times. 

sMumford and Allison, 111. Bui. 142. 



298 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



The self-fed steers consumed a heavier concentrate allowance and 
\^1ere brouglit to full feed in a shorter time witliout any set bade 
from over-eating. Tho consuming more feed than Lot I, this was 
more than offset by their larger gains. Even after adding the cost 
of chaiiting the hay, the self-fed steers made the cheaper gains. Both 
systems recjuired about the same amount of labor, but by the use of 
the self feeder the necessity for a man skilled in feeding was reduced. 
In trials during 2 years at the Iowa Station "^ 2 lots of 2-yr.-old steers 




P^'k;. s4.- (^i icT Is IIk.iii,^' I .Mi'diri' \xt in Makixg Bekf 

Cattle wliicli "oat and lie down" make niiieh more economical gaiuis tiian those 
which arc restless and active. (From lifccdcr's (lazcttc.) 

were fed for 150 to 160 days on shelled corn, linseed meal, cora 
silage, and alfalfa hay. Each year one lot was fed the corn in a self 
feeder and the other by hand. The self-fed steers made slightly the 
larger gains and returned the most profit over cost of feed. 

Water; salt. — Fattening cattle should have an abundant supply 
of pure water at all times. Separate water troughs should be pro- 
vided for pigs running with the steers. While it is best to have water 

« Pew, Evvard, and Dunn, Iowa Bui. 182. 



FEEDING AND CARE OF BEEF CATTLE 299 

before cattle at all times, they readily adapt themselves to taking a 
fill oiice daily and thrive. The water provision should not be less 
than 10 gallons per day per head for mature cattle. 

Animals consuming large quantities of rich, nutritious food, as are 
fattening steers, show a strong desire for salt, and this craving should 
be reasonably satisfied. 

Hints on fattening cattle. — In fattening cattle it is important that 
they be accustomed to corn or other concentrates gradually or di- 
gestive trouble will result. At first give all the roughage they will 
clean up, with but 2 lbs. of concentrates per head daily, increasing 
1 lb. or less each day until 10 lbs. is fed. Any further increase should 
be still more gradual. The majority of cattlemen feed concentrates 
and roughage twice a day in winter and once a day on pasture in 
summer. 

The best results are secured only when the cattle are fed at regular 
hours and when the attendant is quiet and kind at all times, so that 
the animals trust rather than fear him. In parts of the corn belt 
the feed lot in winter is often a sea of mud. Under such conditions 
the steers cannot be expected to make the best gains. Cattle of the 
same age, or at least those of equal size and strength, should be fed 
in the same enclosure. AVeak animals, and those unable for any 
reason to crowd to the feed trough and get their share, should be 
placed Avhere they can eat in quiet. The expert stockman quickly 
notes any tendency to scour, and checks it by reducing the allowance 
of concentrates. He has a quick eye which takes in every animal 
in the feed lot at a glance, and a sound judgment which guides in 
dealing out feed ample for all, but not a pound in excess. 

Pigs following- steers.'' — Pigs are usually kept with fattening cat- 
tle to utilize the undigested corn or other grain in the droppings. 
The number of pigs per steer varies with the kind of feed and the age 
of the cattle being fed. The range is 2 to 3 pigs per steer on snapped 
corn, about 1.5 per steer on husked ear corn, 1 per steer on shelled 
corn, and 1 pig to 2 or 3 steers on crushed or ground corn. The 
younger the steers, the better they masticate and utilize their feetl 
and the smaller are the gains made by the pigs following. The best 
pigs for following cattle weigh from 50 to 150 lbs. and when they 
become fat they should be replaced. Any extra grain given the pigs 
should be fed in nearby separate pens before the cattle are fed, so 
that they will not crowd around the feed troughs or under the wagon 
and team when the cattle are being fed. The margin in cattle feed- 
ing is frequently so narrow that the gains made by the pigs return 
the only profit. Therefore, except in the case of young cattle being 

'! Largely adapted from Waters, Mo. Bui. 70. 



300 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

fed for baby beef on ground grain, it is best not to undertake to fatten 
cattle unless pigs can follow them and utilize. the waste feed. 

Cost of fattening. — ^lumford ** estimates that one man and team 
can care for and feed 200 cattle and the pigs following. From this 
the cost of labor can readily be computed at local prices. Under 
favorable conditions the gains of pigs following steers fed whole 
corn will offset the labor cost of caring for both the fattening steers 
and the pigs. Another reasonable assumption is that when farm- 
grown crops are charged to the steers at market prices, the labor of 
feeding them to the cattle is no greater than that of hauling them to 
market. The manure produced by steers during 6 months' feeding 
ranges from 3 to 4 tons, worth on many farms from $9.00 to $13.00 
per steer. This alone should repay the labor cost of fattening the 
■cattle. 

Preparing for shipment; shrinkage. — A day or two before ship- 
ment the cattle should be fed hay only, preferably hay from the 
grasses or mixed hay, rather than clear clover or alfalfa hay, which 
are too laxative. For feed Avhile on the road good, sweet hay, with no 
grain, is best. The shrinkage of either range cattle or fat cattle in 
transit 36 hours or less is 3 to 4 per ct. ; when in transit 70 hours or 
over the shrinkage is 5 to 6 per ct. of their live weight." AVhen 
cattle are fed succulent feed up to the time of shipping, the shrinkage 
is much greater. 

II. Raising Beef Cattle 

In establishing a breeding herd, the first step should be to select 
Avell-bred individuals of the beef breeds, having the conformation 
which indicates that their off-spring will make economical gains, 
nuiture early, and yield carcasses with a large percentage of high- 
priced cuts of meat. AVhere cows are kept only for raising calves for 
beef, the cost of their keep for an entire year must be charged against 
the fatted steer. In reducing the cost of beef production, it is there- 
fore essential that the breeding herd be maintained as cheaply as jdos- 
sible, yet kept in vigorous breeding condition. 

The breeding cows. — Cows kept solely for beef production are 
commonly grazed on pasture during the growing season, the suckling 
calves running with their dams. Usually the pastures thus utilized 
will be land least suited to tillage, and no concentrates will be fed on 
pasture. Where land is high-priced and tillable the herd may often 
be maintained most cheaply on limited pasturage supplemented by 
summer silage. Pure water, salt, and shade should be supplied the 
herd at pasture. 

8 Beef I'rodiielioii, pp. 3:5-4. '■•Ward, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 25. 



FEEDING AND CARE OF BEEF CATTLE 301 

The herd may be wintered on legume roughage alone, or on car- 
bonaceous rougliages with some such nitrogenous concentrate as cot- 
tonseed or linseed meal to balance the ration. They should be kept 
in good tlesh else they will not produce vigorous calves and nourish 
them with a good flow of milk. 

At the Illinois Station," an average ration of 16.7 lbs. com silage, 
3.5 lbs. clover hay, and 9,6 lbs. oat straw proved excellent for winter- 
ing 860-1]). beef cows, while one of 8.7 l])s. shock corn, 3.5 lbs. clover 
hay, and 10,8 lbs. oat straw was satisfactory, but not as good as the 
first ration. At the Pennsylvania Station, ^^ 1,160-lb. beef cows, sev- 
eral of which were suckling calves, were wintered satisfactorily on 58 
lbs. of corn silage and 1 lb. of cottonseed meal per head daily. Dur- 
ing the remainder of the year the cows, with the calves at foot, grazed 
a pasture too rough for tilled crops. 
. At the Hays, Kansas, Sub-station,^- 900-lb. beef cows were Avintered 
on 20 to 35 lbs. of kafir silage or 26 to 27 lbs. of kaiir fodder or stover 
per head daily, with 1 lb. of cottonseed meal and what wheat straw 
they would eat, 10 to 17 lbs. dail}^ for each animal. The daily 
feed cost with pre-war prices was only 4 cents per liead with kalir 
silage and 10 cents with kafir fodder. These trials show the possibili- 
ties of maintaining beef breeding cows chiefly on cheap roughages. 

The beef bull. — On the range the bulls run with the cows, but 
under farm conditions it is best to confine the bull during the sum- 
mer, preferably in a well-fenced pasture lot. It will then be possible 
to keep a record of the date when the cows are due to calve, and the 
bull so handled can serve a larger number of cows a year. The same 
general principles apply to the feed and care of the beef bull as 
with the dairy bull. (See Chapter XXII.) 

The beef calf. — Under the simplest method of beef production, as 
on the range, the calves are dropped in the spring and run with their 
dams during the summer. Under farm conditions some prefer to 
allow the calves to suck only at stated intervals, 3 times a day at 
first, and later twice. Where the calf remains with the dam her 
udder should, for a time, be stripped night and morning lest neglect 
bring garget and destroy her usefulness. The greatest danger under 
this system comes at weaning time, when, if the calf has not been 
taught to eat solid food, it pines and loses weight. To avoid this, 
before weaning it should be taught to eat shelled corn, whole oats, 
wheat bran, linseed meal, hay, etc. The first departure from this 

loMumford, 111. Bui. 111. 

11 Cocliel, Tomhave, and Severson, Penn. Bui. 118, and information to the 
authors. 

i-2CocIiel, Kan. Bui. 198. 



302 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



simple and primitive inetliod is i)uttiiig two calves with each cow, 
which is feasible where she yields a good flow of milk. Suckling 
calves should gain 2 lbs., or over, per head daily if their dams are 
good milkers. 

While in some districts it is best to rear the beef calf on whole 
milk from dam or pail, over large sections of the country it is more 
profitable to sell the fat of the milk in butter or cream and rear the 
calf on skim milk with proper supplements. This method involves 
increased labor, skill, and watchfulness on the part of the feeder. 




A Farm Herd of Beef Cows and Calves 



The next few years should see good beef breeding herds established on thou- 
sands of farms, to utilize land unsuited for tillage or such cheap feeds as corn 
silage, corn stover, and straw. (From Breeder's Gazette.) 



but its success has been widely demonstrated. The method to be em- 
ployed is like that already given for the rearing of the dairy calf, 
except that the beef calf should be fed more liberally. Calves that 
fail to thrive when sucking the cow or when fed on rich milk should 
have their allowance reduced or should be given part skim milk. 

After weaning, growth should be continuous. If the calves are not 
at pasture, they should be fed plenty of good roughage, with sufficient 
concentrates to produce the desired gains. As with dairy heifers, 
for young beef cattle nothing excels good legume hay, rich in pro- 
tein and bone-building mineral matter. Where this is not available 



FEEDING AND CAKE OF BEEF CATTLE 303 

nitrogenous concentrates should balance the ration. The majority 
of beef producers prefer to have calves dropped in the spring, as the 
cows may then be wintered more cheaply, with less shelter and less 
care. 

Veal production. — For the highest grade of veal whole milk is 
essential, and growth must be as rapid as possible, the whole process 
being completed before there is any tendency in the flesh to take 
on the coarser character of beef. Such veal commands a high price 
in some of the European markets, and the butchers are extremely 
expert in judging whether the calf has received any other feed than 
whole milk. In this country such veal can be profitably produced 
only for special markets. A less expensive method is to feed a limited 
amount of whole milk supplemented by grain, or skim milk may be 
gradually substituted, as with dairy calves. With the latter method, 
considerable skill is necessary to feed the calves so they will gain 
rapidly without going off feed. 

Growing beef cattle. — Except where calves are being fattened for 
baby beef, growing beef cattle are not ordinarily given any feed in 
addition to good pasture, unless the pasture becomes short. Then 
summer silage, soiling crops, or specially grown annual pasture crops 
may be supplied. Considerable fall pasturage is furnished by after- 
math on meadows or by the stubble fields, especially where rape seed 
is sown with the spring grain. 

The ration needed to carry growing cattle thru the winter in good 
condition will depend on their age, and on whether it is desired to 
have them make substantial gains or merely come thru the winter 
in thrifty enough condition to make maximum gains on pasture the 
following summer. While yearlings and 2-year-olds may be win- 
tered on good roughages only, for calves 1 to 3 lbs. of concentrates 
per head daily is needed in addition, for it is important to keep the 
calf growing steadily. Calves do not thrive on such coarse rough- 
age as may be fed to older cattle. At the North Platte, Nebraska, 
Substation, ^^ beef calves were wintered satisfactorily on 2 lbs. of 
corn and oats with alfalfa hay or half alfalfa and half prairie or sor- 
ghum hay. Poorer results were secured with prairie or sorghum hay 
and the same amount of grain. At the Kansas Station,^* beef calves 
made good growth in winter on silage from corn, kafir, or sweet sor- 
ghum, and 1 lb. of cottonseed or linseed meal per head daily. The 
second winter, if the cattle are not to be fattened on grass the fol- 
lowing summer, the aim should be to grow as large a framework as 
possible, but not to fatten, for cattle that are lean but thrifty in the 
spring make larger gains on summer pasture than do fleshy ones. 

13 Snyder, Nebr. Buls. 105, 117. i* Cochel, information to the authors. 



304 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

If tlie cattle are to be fattened on pasture the following summer, 
feeding a moderate amount of concentrates in addition to legume 
hay and silage rich in ear corn will start fattening and help to 
shorten the summer feeding period. 

Trials at the IMissouri Station/"' show that yearling steers fed clover, 
alfalfa, or cowpea hay with 5.5 to 6.0 lbs. of corn per head daily gained 
1.4 to 2.0 lbs. per head daily. Half clover hay and half corn stover 
gave nearly as good results, but with corn stover, or timothy, sor- 
ghum, or millet hay as the only roughage, the results were much 
poorer. Yearlings wintered on 13.6 lbs. clover hay and 13.6 lbs. 
corn stover per head daily or on ensiled corn stover alone gained 
about half a pound per head daily. On cured corn stover alone they 
lost weight. At the Tennessee Station ^^ steers were wintered satisfac- 
torily on corn silage, corn stover, or straw, with 1 to 2 lbs. of cotton- 
seed meal in addition. 

III. IMethods of Beef Production 

Fattening cattle on pasture. — ^AVhether the feeder should faiish 
his cattle during the winter and spring in the dry lot or carry them 
thru the winter to be fattened on pasture in the summer will depend, 
first of all, on the cost of pasturage compared with ha^', silage, and 
other roughage. In the grazing regions cattle are commonly sold at 
the close of the pasture season when, if the grass has been good, many 
are fat enough for the block, while the rest go into feed lots to be fat- 
tened further. Where land is high-priced, the tendency is to fatten 
feeders in the dry lot, since under these conditions corn silage is 
often cheaper than pasturage. 

According to data collected by the experiments stations ^" from 
successful cattlemen, the gains of cattle in the corn belt on grass and 
receiving no grain should range from 1.2 to 1.7 lbs. per head daily 
for yearlings and 1.3 to 1.9 lbs. for 2-3'ear-olds during the grazing 
season. It was found in Indiana that on the average thruout the sea- 
son each grain-fed steer required 1.1 acres of pasture, and when no 
grain was given each steer required 2 acres. From these figures and 
the price at w^hich pasture land rents, the cost of gains on pasture 
may be calculated. When cattle are fattened on pasture less grain 
and less expensive supplements like cottonseed and linseed meal are 
required than when finished in the winter feed lot. Cattle fatten 
more rapidly and more uniformly on pasture, and the pigs following 
them make larger gains. Labor is saved when cattle are fattened on 

15 Waters, Mo. Bui. 75. 

16 Willson, information to the authors. 

iTMumford and Hall, 111. Cir. 79; Waters, Mo. Cir. 24. 



FEEDING AND CARE OF BEEF CATTLE 305 

pasture. In summer the grain only is drawn ; it is usually fed but 
once a day ; there is no roughaj;e to haiidle ; and the majuire is dis- 
tributed by the cattle themselves.'** 

Feeding' concentrates on pasture. — Cattle being finished on pas- 
ture may be fed no concentrates at all, a small allowance may be 
given during the entire pasture period, concentrates may be fed 
during only the last few weeks, or, finally, an unlimited allowance of 
grain maj'' be given thruout the entire period. Except under range 
conditions and in certain districts, as in the bluegrass region of Vir- 
ginia, where the grasses are unusually nutritious, it will usually pay 
to feed some grain in addition to pasture. The cheap gains made on 
grass alone are usually offset by the low selling value of such cattle, 
because they are usually not well finished. When grain has been fed 
to cattle during the winter, it should be continued after turning to 
pasture until they become accustomed to grass, otherwise they may 
shrink in weight. If cattle are nearly finished when the pasture sea- 
son opens, they had best be finished in the dry lot, for if turned to 
pasture they usually make poor gains. 

Since inmiature grass, such as is usuall}^ eaten by grazing animals, 
is much richer in protein than grass at the stage when cut for hay, 
corn and bluegrass pasture alone make a fairly well-balanced ration 
for the fattening steer. Experiments at the jMissouri Station ^" show, 
however, that it is usually advisable to add some protein-rich sup- 
plement during the last of the feeding period to keep the steers from 
going off feed and making smaller gains. 

Baby beef. — The most intensive method of beef production is fat- 
tening calves for baby beef. Under this system beef -bred calves are 
fattened as they grow, reaching a good finish when 16 to 18 months 
old and weighing about 1,100 lbs. or less. In the production of 
baby beef, first of all, blocky calves of good beef type and conforma- 
tion must be selected, for scrub or dairy-bred calves will not usually' 
reach the desired maturity and finish at this early age. Profitable 
baby beef production requires a high degree of experience, judgment, 
and skill and it is a mistake for the inexperienced to dip heavily into 
this art. Calves for baby beef should be fattened as they grow, never 
being allowed to lose their "calf fat." In winter roughage of high 
quality, such as clover or alfalfa hay and silage, should be supplied 
and during summer the calves should be on good pasture. Shelled, 
crushed, or ground corn should be fed, together with linseed meal, 
cottonseed meal, or oth^er protein-rich concentrates. When whole 
corn is given, hogs may profitably follow. Oats are one of the best 
^f feeds with which to start the calf on its way to fattening. In 

18 Waters, Mo Cir. 24. is Mumford, Mo. Bu!. 90. 



306 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

baby beef pi'oduetion the calves must be fattening all the time; 
this can only be aeconiplished by the most liberal and judicious feed- 
ing, since it is extremely difficult to get calves and yearlings suffi- 
ciently fat for the market requirements. Heifer calves mature more 
quickly and may be marketed earlier than steers. It is seldom pos- 
sible or profitable to get spring calves ready for the baby beef market 
before July of the following year and more frequently they are not 
marketed until October, November, or December, when approximately 
18 months o-ld. This system of beef production is best suited to corn- 
belt farms where pasture is relatively expensive and corn is cheaper 
than in other sections of the country. 

Fattening yearlings. — Less extreme than the feeding of calves for 
baby beef is finishing steers as yearlings ; i.e., before they are 2 years 
old. Spring calves may be carried thru the first winter on roughage 
with a small allowance of concentrates, the ration being such as to 
keep them growing steadily. The second summer good pasture alone 
will suffice to put them in condition for the feed lot in the fall. 

Calves to be fattened as yearlings should be taught to eat grain 
before being weaned, so that there may be no loss of condition at this 
time. To fatten yearlings properly requires 8 to 10 months, even 
if they are of good beef type. Trials at the Indiana Station -'^ show 
that it is ordinarily more profitable to complete the fattening of year- 
lings in the feed lot, than to turn them out to grass in the spring, 
when half finished. 

Fattening cattle 2 years old or older. — Where pasturage is cheap, 
cattle are usuall}^ not marketed until 2 years old or older, in which 
case they may be carried thru the first winter chiefly on roughage 
with 1 to 3 lbs. of grain per head daily. The following summer 
they will grow well on good pasture without grain. The second 
winter no grain need be fed, if the cattle are not to be sold until fall 
or until after finishing in the winter feed lot. If they are to be fin- 
ished on grass early in the summer, a moderate allowance of concen- 
trates will be needed during the preceding winter to start fattening. 

According to Cochel of the Kansas Station,'-^ the system of beef 
production usually most profitable in western Kansas is to raise the 
calves on pasture the first summer; winter them on kafir, milo, or 
sorghum silage, alfalfa hay and straw or stover from the sorghums, 
with perhaps some cottonseed meal in addition ; pasture the yearlings 
the second summer without feeding grain ; carry them thru the sec- 
ond winter as before ; and market the third summer from grass. With 
good pasture such cattle should reach a weight of about 1,050 lbs. and 
be fat enough to sell as fleshy feeders or fair killers. In other sec- 

20 Skinner and Cochel, lud. Bui. 142. i^i Information to the authors*- 



FEEDING AND CARE OF BEEF CATTLE 30 f 

tions of tlie western pra/iiig district a still less intensive system is 
followed, the steers not being sold until -'} years of age. However, 
the tendency is ever toward hurrying the beef animal to the block, 
and while 4- and 5-year-old steers were once common on the range, 
but few now reach that age. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Into wliat two phases is beef production largely divided? 

2. Define margin and show by example the margin necessary to prevent loss 
in fattening steers. Wliat factors influence tlie margin required? 

3. Discuss the food requirements of fattening cattle. 

4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of fattening 2-year-olds com- 
pared with calves or yearlings? 

5. How does the degree of finisli afTeet the cost of gains? 

G. What factors affect tiie length of time required to fatten cattle? 

7. Discuss the effects of limiting the allowance of concentrates during tlie 
fattening period. 

8. Wherein do beef -bred steers excel scrubs and dairy bred steers for lioef 
production ? 

9. P>rie(iy discuss eacii of the following: (a) shelter for fattening cattle; (b) 
the self feeder; (c) water and salt requirements; (d) pigs following steers; 
(e) cost of fattening. 

10. How sliould beef breeding cows be fed and cared for? 

11. Describe various methods of raising beef calves. 

12. How should calves be fed for veal? 

13. Discuss the feeding of growing beef cattle. 

14. What have you learned concerning fattening cattle oa pasture? 

15. Discuss the production of baby beef; the fattening of yearlings; the fatten- 
iiig of cattle two years old or over. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

FEEDS FOR 15EEF CATTLE 

I. Carbonaceous Concentrates 

Indian corn. — Of all the concentrates, Indian corn is and will 
continue to be the great fattening feed for cattle in the United States. 
It excels not only because of its richness in starch and oil, but also 
because no other concentrate is so palatable to cattle. Numerous 
trials have clearly shown, however, that corn is too low in protein, 
even for fattening animals, and should therefore be fed with legume 
Why or else with some protein-rich concentrate, such as linseed or 
cottonseed meal, when only carbonaceous roughages are used. The 
value of legume hay for supplementing corn is shown in the follow- 
ing table, which summarizes the results of 8 trials, averaging 141 
days in length, where corn was fed with carbonaceous roughage, 
.such as timothy hay, prairie hay, corn stover or kafir stover, to one 
lot of 2- or 3-year-old steers, while corn and clover or alfalfa hay 
were fed to a second lot. 

Legume hay os a supplement to eorn 

Feed for 100 lbs. cnin 
Average ration 

Lot I, unbalanced ration 

Corn, 15.2 lbs. 

Carbonaceous rougliago, 1:1.0 lbs n.lO 1.7 OHO 8.'?2 

Lot II, balanced ration 
Corn, 1.5.4 lbs. 

Legume hay, 1.3.2 lbs n52 2.3 GSO .575 

While the steers in Lot II, fed corn and legume hay, gained 2.3 
lbs. per head daily, those in Lot I, getting the unbalanced ration of 
corn and carbonaceous roughage, gained only L7 lbs., and re(|uired 
35 per et. more corn and 44 per ct. more roughage for 100 lbs. gain 
than the others. 

The following table shows clearly the importance of adding some 
protein-rich concentrate to balance the ration when corn is fed with 
carbonaceous roughage. This summarizes the results of 4 trials, aver- 

308 



Initinl 


n.Mily 


Conoen- 


Rougli 


we i si it 


gain 


trntes 


ase 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 



FEEDS FOR BEEF CATTLE 309 

aging 132 days, in which one lot of steers was fed only eorn and 
carbonaceous roughage, while linseed meal, cottonseed meal, or gluten 
feed was added to the ration of the other" lot. 

rroteiu-rich concentrates as supplements to corn 

Feed for 100 lbs. guin 



Lot I, unhalanced ration 


Initial 

Aveight 

Lbs. 


Daily 
gain 
Lbs. 


Concen- 
trates 
Lbs. 


Rough- 
age 
Lbs. 


Corn, 16.3 lbs. 

Carbonaceous rougliagc, 8.3 lbs.. . , 


. . 995 


1.6 


1,082 


522 


Lot II, balanced ration 










Corn, 16.7 lbs. 

Protein-rich concentrate, 2.1 lbs. 
Carbonaceous roughage, 8.6 lbs.. 


. . 1,002 


2.2 


802 


402 



Lot I, fed only corn and carbonaceous roughage, gained but l.S 
lbs. per head daily, while Lot 11, receiving 2.1 lbs. of protein-rich 
coiiceiitrales in addition, gained 2.2 lbs. per head daily and required 
about 20 per ct. le.ss feed per 100 lbs. gain. When the corn allow- 
ance is properly balanced, not only is the feeding value of this grain 
greatly increased with both the cattle and the pigs which follow the 
steers, but it keeps the animals more healthy, shortens the feeding 
period, and gives a higher linisli than can be secured with unbalanced 
rations. 

Adding a protein-rich concentrate to corn and legume hay. — 
"Whether it will pay to add a nitrogenous concentrate to a ration o£ 
corn and legume hay will depend on the relative prices of corn and 
the other feeds. During the early part of the fattening period 
steers given all the legume hay they will clean up eat enough of it to 
balance their ration quite well. Later, when they eat more corn and 
less hay, the ration becomes too low in protein, and adding a protein- 
rich concentrate will then cause larger gains. With feeds at usual 
prices, it ordinarily pays to give at least 2. lbs. of linseed or cotton- 
seed meal per head daily, or an equivalent amount of other pi'otein- 
rich feeds, when steers are fed corn and clover hay. AVith alfalfa 
hay for roughage, there is less advantage in adding protein-rich con- 
centrates, since alfalfa is higher in protein than clover. 

Preparation of corn for beef cattle. — The practice of successful 
stockmen in the corn belt and trials at the experiment stations show 
that, in general, getting corn to cattle in the simplest manner and 
with the least preparation and handling is the most economical, when 
pigs follow the steers to consume any graijis which escape mastica- 
tion. The majority of feeders accordingly feed shock corn, husked 



310 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



or unhusked ear corn, or shelled corn, but few using corn meal or 
com-and-cob meal thruout the fattening period. To induce young 
animals to eat sufficient corn to overcome their tendency to grow 
rather than to fatten, more joreparation is warranted than for older 
animals. Many skilled feeders seek to "keep the feed better than the 
cattle," i.e., prepare the feed more as the cattle gain in flesh. Thus, 
they may start the steers on shock corn, then as they require more 
concentrates, add snapped corn or ear corn ; still later the ear corn 
is broken or shelled ; and toward the close of the fattening period, to 
tempt them to consume a heavier allowance of grain, com meal or 




F.VTTENING StkEKS EaTING ShOCK CoRN 



FoedinjT shock corn is an economical jiractice, especially durinn; the first of the 
fattcnin;T jicriod. Later, move preparation of the corn may be profitable. (From 
Successful Farming.) 



corn-and-cob meal is employed. Silage from well-matured corn is 
the most palatable form in which the entire corn plant can be offered 
to the steer. In addition to the grain in this succulent feed, some 
corn should be fed, usually in the form of shelled corn or ear corn. 

Since corn long stored in the crib becomes dry and hard, for sum- 
mer feeding the grain should be soaked or shelled, or possibly ground. 

Other cereals. — In sections of the AVest where corn does not thrive 
harleij is of much importance for fattening cattle. This grain is 
equal to or but slightly lower than corn in value. 

Wheat is seldom fed to cattle except when off grade or unusually 
low in price. As wheat is less palatable than corn, steers may not 



FEEDS FOR BEEF CATTLE 311 

eat so much, and hence they may make slightly smaller gains. Other- 
wise, the feeding value of wheat is as high as that of corn. 

Since oats are usually high in price compared with other grains, 
they are seldom used as the chief concentrate for fattening, tho they 
are well liked by cattle and produce beef of good quality. Oats are 
excellent for growing cattle, and are also useful for mixing with 
corn in starting cattle on feed, especially calves being fattened for 
baby beef. 

For the northern part of the Great Plains region emmer ranks 
high as a grain for fattening cattle. Tho in one trial ^ it proved fully 
equal to corn, its usual value will probably be slightly lower than that 
of corn. 

The grain soi'ghums are of great and increasing importance for 
beef production thruout the southern portion of the Great Plains 
region. When fed with alfalfa hay to balance the ration, kafir or 
milo grain nearly equals corn in feeding value. 

The seed of hog- or hroom-corn millet, which is a reliable grain 
crop on the northern plains, is a satisfactory feed for fattening cattle, 
being worth about three-fourths as much as corn per 100 lbs. 

In the South low grade 7'ough rice is sometimes an economical feed 
for beef production, being worth slightly more than corn. 

Since all of these grains are. low in protein, they should be fed 
with legume hay or protein-rich concentrates. All should be ground 
or crushed for fattening cattle, even when pigs follow, for the grains 
that escape mastication are too small to be readily recovered by the 

pigs- 
Miscellaneous carbonaceous concentrates. — In the vicinity of 
western beet-sugar factories thousands of cattle are fattened annually 
on tvet heet pulp with alfalfa hay, which admirably supplements this 
protein-poor feed, and usually with a small allowance of grain in 
addition. In a trial at the Colorado Station ^ 1 ton of wet beet pulp 
was equal to 620 lbs. of alfalfa hay or 220 lbs. of ground corn. 
Animals should be accustomed gradually to the pulp, later getting 
all they will clean up. Care should be taken that refuse pulp does 
not accumulate in the troughs and decompose. 

In the sugar districts of the South cane molasses is an economical 
carbonaceous concentrate for cattle. When replacing not more than 
half the corn in a ration, it proved slightly more valuable, pound for 
pound, than corn in a trial at the Texas Station.^ In the North, where 
molasses is relatively high in price, as much an 5 lbs. per head daily 
is not ordinarily economical, tho a small amount mixed with other 

1 Wilson, S. D. Bui. 1(50. s Burns, Te.x. Bui. 110. 

2Carlyle and Griffith, Colo. Bui. 102. 



312 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

feed may be profitable in stimulating the appetite or in getting ani- 
mals to eat roughage which they Avould otherwise refuse. 

The use of beet molasses is greatly increasing in the beet-sugar 
districts. It is spread over hay or cut straw, either undiluted or 
thinned with water. Owing to its laxative effect, not more than 4 
to 8 lbs. of beet molasses should be fed per head daily to fattening 
cattle, 

II. Protein-rich Concentrates 

Cottonseed meal. — This protein-rich concentrate is the basis of the 
fattening of beef cattle in the South and is widely used in the north- 
ern states to supplement rations deficient in protein. Trials at the 
Indiana Station,* show that about 2.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal daily 
per 1,000 lbs. live weight is sufficient to balance a ration of shelled 
corn, corn silage, and oat straw or clover hay. However, in the South, 
owing to its cheapness cottonseed meal is commonly fed as the sole 
concentrate, along with cottonseed hulls, corn silage, or other rough- 
age. Since cottonseed meal is poisonous to fattening cattle when fed 
in excess, they should be accustomed to it gradually and the meal 
should be mixed with roughage so a greedy steer cannot over eat. 
Trials at the Tennessee Station ^ show that it rarely pays to feed 
more than 4 or 5 lbs. during the first of the fattening period, in- 
creasing to 6 or 7 lbs. later. Results at the North Carolina Station '^ 
show that where the market demands highly finished animals it may 
be profitable to feed as much as 10.5 lbs. per head daily. With 
cottonseed hulls for roughage, this amount could be fed only 120 to 
I'S') daj's before poisonous effects began to show, while with corn 
silage for roughage the fattening could be continued for 30 to 60 
d lys longer without harm. Owing to its protein-rich nature, cotton- 
S(>ed meal tends to produce growth rather than to fatten young steers ; 
hence, 2- or 3-year-olds are best suited for heavy cottonseed meal 
feeding. 

Cold-pressed cottonseed cake is relished by cattle even better than 
cottonseed meal. In a trial at the Iowa Station ^ 133 lbs. of this 
cake proved more than equal to 100 lbs. of cottonseed meal. 

Linseed meal. — Thruout the northern states linseed meal is widely 
used as a protein-rich supplement for fattening beef cattle. In trials 
at the Nebraska Station ^ linseed meal was slightly superior to eotton- 

4 Skinner and Kinp:, Tnd T'.uls. l.-i.^, 107, 178. 

5 VVillson, Tenn. P.ul. 104. 

•5 Gray and Cviitis. inforniiit i(m io tlie iuitluns. 

7 Kennedy and Robhins, Breeder's Gaz., 58, 1910, p. 303. 

RSmitli, 'Nebr. Bui. 100. 



FEEDS FOR BEEF CATTLE 313 

seed meal as a supplement to corn and prairie hay or corn stover, and 
produced considerably larger gains than when the ration was sup- 
plemented by wheat bran. 

Wheat bran. — Since wheat bran is lower in protein than linseed 
or cottonseed meal, a correspondingly larger amount is needed to 
balance a ration deficient in this nutrient. It is therefore frequently 
an expensive supplement for fattening cattle. However, this bulky 
feed is helpful in starting cattle on feed, even tho it is not continued 
thruout the fattening period. 

Soybeans; cowpeas. — These protein-rich seeds are well suited to 
supplement corn and the other cereals. In trials at the Indiana Sta- 
tion " ground soj^beans gave good returns when 2.5 to 3.0 lbs. was 
fed per head daily to supplement a ration of shelled corn, corn silage, 
and oat straw or clover hay. They were somewhat less satisfactory 
than cottonseed meal, however, for the steers fed soybeans were more 
apt to go off feed near the end of the fattening period, due undoubt- 
edly to the large amount of oil the beans contain. With soybean meal, 
which contains much less oil, this condition would probably not result. 

In the southern states it is possible to grow a winter crop of small 
grain and harvest it in time to plant soybeans, cowpeas, or corn, thus 
securing 2 crops each year from the same land. At the Tennessee 
Station ^" in a 7-year trial an acre of winter barley, followed by 
soybeans grown for grain and stover, produced 508 lbs. of gain 
w^hen fed to steers, while an acre of barley followed by cowpeas gave 
451 lbs. of gain. These returns show the great possibilities of th? 
South for beef production when more than a single crop is grown on 
the same land each year. 

Miscellaneous protein-rich concentrates. — Tho most commonly 
fed to dairy cows, gluten feed, (Iriecl distillers' grains, and dried 
brcivtrs' grains are all satisfactory protein-rich concentrates for beef 
cattle. Whether to use these feeds in place of those already dis- 
cussed will depend on their relative price. 

III. Legume Hay and Other Dry Roughages 

Value of legume hay. — The great importance of hay from the 
legumes in balancing the carbonaceous grains, such as corn, barley, 
and wheat, has been pointed out earlier in this chapter. Even when 
a ration of com and such oarbonaceous roughages as timothy hay, 
prairie hay, or corn fodder is properly supplemented by linseed or 
cottonseed meal or some other protein-rich concentrate, smaller gains 

9 Skinner and King, Ind. Buls. 167, 178; information to the authors. 

10 Quereau and Willson, information to the authors. 



Daily 


Concen- 


Roughage 


gam 


trates 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 



814 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABKIDGED 

will nearly always be produced than when the ration consists of corn 
and legume hay. This is shown in the following table, which sum- 
marizes the results secured in 4 trials in which 2-year-old 942-lb. 
steers were fed for j^eriods averaging 158 days: 

Legume hay vs. carbo7iaceous roughage plus protein-rich supplement 

Feed for 100 lbs. gain 
Daily ( 

Average ration 

Lot I 

Legume liay, 9.3 lbs. Corn, 17.0 lbs 2.3 77S 405 

Lot II 

Carbonaceous roughage 8.0 lbs. Corn, 1G.4 lbs. 

Supplement, 2.2 lbs 2.0 910 387 

Lot I, fed legume hay and com, gained on the average 0.8 lb. more 
per head daily and required 15.1 per ct. less concentrates and about 
the same amount of roughage as Lot II, fed the equally well-balanced 
but less palatable ration in which the roughage was prairie hay, 
timothy hay, or corn stover with a small amount of oat straw. Onh'' 
when silage, appetizing as w^ell as nutritious, is fed is it possible to 
provide a ration which will equal one where the roughage is legume 
hay. Even on farms where much legume hay is raised, considerable 
carbonaceous roughage, such as corn and sorghum stover, straw, and 
hay from the grasses, is normally produced. Tho such roughage is 
inferior to legume hay when fed alone, satisfactory and cheap gains 
may be secured Avhen it is fed with legume hay as part of the roughage. 

Legume hays compared. — Trials at the Indiana Station " show that 
when fed in rations containing ample protein clover and alfalfa harj 
have about equal value. However, since alfalfa hay is considerably 
richer in protein than clover hay, it is more valuable for balancing 
rations low in this nutrient. 

In a trial at the. South Dakota Station ^^ sweet clover haij was prac- 
tically equal to alfalfa hay for fattening steers. Coivpca hatj, of 
much importance in the South, proved fully equal to clover hay in a 
trial at the IMissouri Station. ^^ Cowpeas are often sown in corn at the 
last cultivation and the vines and corn forage grazed after the ear 
corn has been gathered. Such practice tends to soil improvement as 
w^ell as cheap meat production. 

Corn fodder; corn stover. — Tho there is more waste in feeding 
com fodder than corn silage, where the crop can not be ensiled corn 

11 Skinner and King, Ind. Bui. 178; information to the authors. 

12 Wilson, S. D. Bui. 160. 

13 Waters. Mo. Bui. 76. 



FEEDS FOR BEEF CATTLE 315 

fodder is a cheap and satisfactory roughaoe for fattening cattle, giv- 
ing especially good results when used with legume hay. "When thus 
fed, bright corn stover may form half the roughage allowance with 
excellent results. In 2 trials at the Nebraska Station ^* steers fed 
half corn stover and half alfalfa hay with corn made as large gains 
as others fed alfalfa hay and com. 

Roughages for the plains district. — In the semi-arid districts fod- 
der and stover from both the sweet and the grain sorghums are most 




Fig. 87. — The Type of Calves for Baby Beep Production 

Blocky calves of good type and conformation must be selected for baby beef 
production, as others will not usually reach the desired maturity and tinisli at 
this early age. 

useful feeds in beef production, when combined with legume hay or 
with sufficient nitrogenous concentrates to balance the ration. 

At the Hays, Kansas, Substation ^^ 4 lots of yearling heifers were 
wintered on 1 lb. of linseed meal, 10 lbs. silage, 2.6 lbs. straw, and 
either kafir stover, sorghum stover, damaged alfalfa hay, or 
Sudan hay in addition. Tho the cost of feed and labor was but 5.7 
to 6.3 cts. per head daily, the heifers made large enough gains to put 
them in condition to make good use of pasture the next summer. 
This trial well shows the possibilities in beef production when wise 

"Smith, Nebr. Buls. 90, 93, 100. 

15 Cochel, Kan. Industrialist, May 1, 1915. 



316 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABKIDGED 

use is made of by-product roughages that arc commonly wasted in 
grain farming. 

Cottonseed hulls. — For many years cottonseed meal and cotton- 
seed hulls formed the standard ration for fattening cattle in the 
South. On this combination steers made surprisingly good gains. 
For example, at the Texas Station ^^ yearling steers given these feeds 
made nearly as large gains as others fed corn-and-cob meal and al- 
falfa hay. Trials at the southern stations have shown, however, that 
corn silage and cottonseed meal usually make slightly larger and con- 
siderably cheaper gains than cottonseed hulls and cottonseed meal. 

IV, Succulent Feeds 

Silage in beef production. — The use of silage is fast revolutioniz- 
ing the feeding of beef cattle, just as it has the feeding of milch cows 
in the leading dairy sections of our country. Breeding cows and 
stock cattle may be maintained in winter in good condition on silagt^ 
from well-matured corn or the sorghums, with a limited amount of 
legume hay or a small allowance of such nitrogenous concentrates as 
cottonseed or linseed meal. For growing animals this palatable suc- 
culence can not be excelled, when fed in proper combination with 
legume hay or concentrates rich in protein. 

On well-balanced rations in which silage is the chief roughage the 
steer will fatten rapidly and reach a high finish on a moderate allow- 
ance of expensive concentrates. By feeding, during the first stages 
of fattening, only silage and either legume hay or a small allowance 
of some nitrogenous concentrate to balance the ration, the feed cost 
of the gains may usually be still further reduced. At first it was 
thought that silage-fed cattle shrank more in shipment than those fin- 
ished on dry roughage. Trials have now abundantly shown, how- 
ever, that if silage is withheld for the last day or two before shipment 
and dry roughage fed instead, cattle thus fattened will not shrink 
au}^ more than those receiving no silage. 

Corn silage. — Silage from well-matured corn, carrying an abun- 
dance of ears and a high proportion of grain, is the best of all silage 
for beef cattle. Such silage aids materially in reducing the amount 
of concentrates which need be supplied in addition. To show the 
good results from feeding corn silage there are summarized in the 
following table the results of 15 trials where corn silage was added to 
the already excellent ration of shelled corn, cottonseed or linseed 
meal, and clover or alfalfa hay. In these trials 2-3-ear-old steers 
averaging 976 lbs. in weight were fed for an average of ISl days. 

i*i C'rai;:, Tex. i)ul. 7'6. 



FEEDS FOR BEEF CATTLE 317 

Value of com sll<i(jc ichrn added fa an already excellent ration 



Average ration 
Lot I 


Daily 
Rain 
Lbs. 


F. 
Concen- 
trates 
Lbs. 


■ed 


for lOU 

Hay 
J-bs. 


lbs. K"i" 

Silage 
Lbs. 


Feed cost 

of 100 

lbs. gain 

Dollars 


Lejiumo liay, 1 1 .2 Ihs. 














Shelled corn, lO.S lbs. 














Supplement, "i.fj lbs 


.2.42 


806 




471 




13.56 



JM IT 

Corn silnpp, 20.4 lbs. 
Lemime hav, ;5.2 lbs. 

Slielled ('oni, i:?.i) lbs. 

Supplement. 2.7 lbs 2.44 6S2 \?,\ 1,0011 12.2S 

The steers in Lot II, fiiven a heavy allowanee of silage, eonsuiii(> 1 
2G.4 lbs. per head daily and ate 2.9 lbs. less eorn and <S.O l])s. less legniiu' 
hay than those in Lot I. The silage ration did not ])rodnee ap- 
preeia])ly larger gains than did legume liay fed as the sole roughage. 
The chief advantage from feeding silage was the reduction in the cost 
of the gains when this economical feed was used. In these trials 1 ton 
of silage saved on the average 226 lbs. of concentrates and 613 lbs. of 
hay. With concentrates at only $20.00 per ton and legume hay at 
$14.00 per ton, corn siLige was worth $6.55 per ton, considerably more 
than the cost of production on most farms. 

Supplement needed with unlimited silage allowance. — We have 
seen earlier in this chapter that wlien steers are fed corn with clover 
or alfalfa hay as the only roughage, they eat sufficient of such pro- 
tein-rich hay to balance their ration fairly weU. ITenee, adding a 
supplement, such as cottonseed or linseed meal, does not greatly in- 
crease the gains. However, if the steers are given all the corn silage 
they will eat in addition to eorn and legume hay, owing to the palata- 
bility of the silage, they will then generally eat but 3 to 6 lbs of hay 
per head daily. Trials at the Indiana Station ^' show that when clover 
hay is fed, the small amount eaten is not sufficient to balance the 
ration properly and that about 2.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal or the 
equivalent of other protein-rich supplements should be fed. Other 
trials show that there is less advantage in adding a supplement to a 
ration of alfalfa hay, com silage and eorn, doubtless due to the rich- 
ness of this hay in protein.^® 

Silage as the sole roughage. — Whether steers fed corn silage only 
for roughage will make as large gains as those supplied some other 
dry roughage in addition is important to the cattle feeder. In each 

1- Skinner, Cocliel, and King, Ind. Buls. 129, 153, 167, 178. 
i** Bliss and Lee, Nebr. Bui. 151 and information to the authors; Rusk, 111. 
Station, Breeder's Gaz., 61, 1912, p. 1041. 



318 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

of 9 trials at 5 different stations one lot of 2-year-old steers was fed 
corn and cottonseed or linseed meal with corn silage as the only 
roughage, while another lot was fed clover or alfalfa hay in addition. 
The steers fed silage as the sole roughage gained 0.12 lb. less per 
head daily on the average, but the feed cost was 74 cents less per 
100 lbs. of gain than witli the steers fed legume hay in addition. 
However, the steers fed legume hay were slightly better finished and 
brought on the average 7 cents more per 100 lbs. than the others. In 
some of the trials they sold for enough more to offset the more expen- 
sive gains, so that they returned a greater profit. 

In later trials at the Indiana Station ^'•' it was found that oat straw 
satisfied the desire of silage-fed steers for dr^^ roughage as well as did 
clover hay. The gains were no larger on a ration of shelled corn, 
cottonseed meal (2.5 lbs. daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight), corn silage, 
and clover hay than when oat straw was substituted for the clover 
hay. It should be pointed out' that these results would not have been 
secured had not sufficient cottonseed meal been fed to balance the oat 
straw, corn silage, and corn ration. These extensive trials teach that 
steers will usually make larger gains and reach a higher finish when 
fed a small amount of dry roughage in addition to silage. An im- 
portant fact is that this dry roughage may consist of such cheap 
material as oat straw, rather than the more expensive legume hay, 
when a nitrogenous concentrate is fed to balance the ration. 

Feeding silage with no shelled corn in addition. — Due to the high 
prices for corn and other concentrates, several trials have been carried 
on recently to find whether cattle could not be brought to a satis- 
factory finish without the use of any grain except that in well-eared 
corn silage. In 7 trials at corn-belt Stations-" .steers fed no shelled 
corn, but only 51.3 lbs. corn silage and 3.4 lbs. legume hay per head 
daily, with 2.9 lbs. cottonseed meal or linseed meal to balance the 
ration, made the very satisfactory gain of 2.07 lbs. per head daily and 
reached good marketable finish. 

In each trial a second lot was fed a "standard corn-belt ration," 
including a moderately lieavy allowance of .shelled corn. These steers 
ate on the average 13.4 lbs. shelled corn, 2.8 lbs. cottonseed or linseed 
meal, 31.5 lbs. corn silage, and 2.8 lbs. legume hay. As would be 
expected, they made considerably larger daily gains, averaging 2.52 
lbs. Their feed cost of 100 lbs. gain was, however, $22.47, or $5.34 
more than for those fed no shelled corn. The difference in cost of 
gains was offset to a considerable extent by the fact that much less 
pork was produced by the pigs following the steers fed no shelled corn. 

1^ Skinner and King, Ind. Euls. 103, 167. 

20 Trials by Indiana, Iowa, Missouri, and \\isconsin Stations. 



FEEDS FOR BEEF CATTLE 



319 



Furthermore, because they were less thoroly fattened, these steers sold 
for $.91 less per cwt. In 4 of the trials the steers fed shelled corn 
made larger profits and in 3 trials, the steers fed the economy ration. 
These trials well show the possibilities of producing satisfactory 
beef at a low cost thru feeding but little expensive concentrates. In 
deciding upon which system of beef production to follow, the chief 




Fig. 88. — The T^se of SilaPxE Is REvoLrTTONizTKo Beep ^Making 

Baby ))eeves fatteniiio' on kafir silage and cottonseed meal in a 'i'exas feed lot. 
(From The SoiitJiwest Trail, Rock Island Lines.) 

factor i.s the difference there will probably be between the price of 
thoroly fattened steers and those in only moderate flesh. "When it is 
probable that prime steers will not command a considerable premium, 
it is the safest plan to feed but little concentrates. (See Page 296.) 

Corn silage vs. shock corn. — The superiority of corn silage over 
shock (;orn or corn fodder is well shown in a trial at the Illinois 



320 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

Station -^ in which growing beef calves were fed either corn silage or 
shock corn from the same field, with 2 lbs. of oats and 4.0 to 4.6 lbs. 
of mixed hay per head daily. The silage-fed calves made slightly 
larger gains, but the chief advantage lay in the fact that more of the 
shock corn was wasted and hence the corn from a much larger area 
was needed to feed the steers getting shock corn than for those fed 
silage. Taking everything into consideration, the corn silage from 
an acre M'as worth 80 per ct. more than the shock corn from the 
same area. In a trial at the Missouri Station -- with fattening steers 
the difference was still greater, silage being worth over 50 per ct. 
more than the shock corn from the same area. 

Silage from other crops. — In silage from the sorghums the feeder 
of the semi-arid regions has an admirable substitute for corn silage. 
In 3 trials at the Kansas Station ^^ steer calves were wintered on about 
26 lbs. of corn, kafir, or sweet sorg'num silage per head daily, with 1 
lb. of cottonseed meal or 1 lb. of corn and 1 lb. of linseed meal in 
addition. All lots made satisfactory gains and the several kinds of 
silage had about the same feeding value. The feeder in this section 
should grow for silage whichever crop will yield the greatest tonnage. 

The southern beef producer has available not only corn silage but 
also silage from sweet sorghum, corn or sorghum grown with eowpeas 
or soybeans, and, in the Gulf region, Japanese cane. 

Roots. — Wherever corn or the sorghums thrive, silage from these 
crops provides cheaper succulence than do roots. In northern dis- 
tricts where root crops flourish but where corn will not mature suffi- 
ciently for silage, roots are a valuable feed for beef cattle. When 
only 6 to 9 lbs. was fed per head daily, roots proved fully equal, 
pound for pound, to good corn silage in a trial at the South Dakota 
Station.-* At the Ontario Agricultural College,-^ where larger al- 
lowances of roots were fed, silage had a somewhat liigher value per 
100 lbs. than roots, due to the larger percentage of diy matter it con- 
tains. 

In Great Britain roots are extensively used for fattening cattle, 
from 35 to as much as 150 lbs. per head daily being fed along with 
6 to 7 lbs. protein-rich concentrates, such as linseed meal, cottonseed 
meal, dried brewers' and distillers' grains, and peanut cake. The 
roots are commonly pulped and mixed with the concentrates and hay 
or straw before feeding. By this means large amounts of cheap 
roughages are utilized. On this small allowance of concentrates and 

2iMumford, 111. Bui. 73. 

22 Allison, Mo. Bui. 112. 

23Cochel, Kan. Bui. 198; Kan. Industrialist, Apr. IS, 1914, :Mav 1, 1915. 

24\Yilson, S. D. Bui. 137. 

25 Day, Ont. Agr. Col., Rpts. 1901, 1902. 



FEEDS FOR BEEF CATTLE 321 

heavy allowance of roots the cattle make excellent gains and reach 
a satisfactory finish. With the high prices for concentrates now 
prevailing in this country, our feeders may wisely adoi)t a similar 
system of beef production, employing silage from corn and the 
sorghums instead of the roots which are the basis of English feeding. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What do feeding experiments show as to the advantage of supplementing 
corn Willi legume hay or protein-rich concentrates for fattening cattle? 

2. Discuss the preparation of corn for beef cattle. 

3. How do harley, wlieat, oats, the grain sorghums, millet, and rough rice 
compare with corn in value for fattening cattle? 

4. Would you use cane or beet molasses in fattening cattle in your locality? 

5. Discuss the use of cottonseed meal for fattening cattle, esi)ecially tiie 
amounts to be fed under various conditions. 

C. State the. value of other protein-rich concentrates important in beef pro- 
duction. 

7. How does a ration of corn and legume hay compare in value with one of 
corn, carbonaceous hay, and a protein-rich supplement? 

8. Discuss the use of corn fodder, corn stover, and cottonseed hulls for cattle. 

9. What are the advantages of feeding silage to fattening cattle? 

10. What have trials shown concerning (a) the need of a supplement when 
corn silage is fed, (b) the use of silage as the sole roughage? 

11. How does an acre of cured corn forage compare in value with the silage 
from the same area ? 

12. What other crops furnish valuable silage for beef cattle? 

13. Tell how roots are used for feeding cattle in Great Britain. 

14. Using feeds available in your section, compute the most economical ration 
according to the Modified Wolff-Lehmann Standard for fattening 2-year-old 
steers averaging 1,100 ll)s. in weight. Follow tlie method given in Chapter VIII 
and compute the ration for tlie second 5(»-(;0 days of the fattening period. 



CHAPTER XXV 

FEEDING AND CARE OF SHEEP 

I. Geneeml Problems in Sheep Husbandry 

The sheep is tlie plant scavenger of the farm. Because of its dainty 
manner of nibbling herbage, we might suppose that its likes were few 
and dislikes many, yet no domestic animal is capable of living on more 
kinds of food. Grasses, shrubs, roots, and cereal grains, leaves, bark, 
and in times of scarcity tish and meat, all serve as food for this won- 
derfully adaptive animal. While horses and cattle eat only about 
half the plants considered weeds, less than one-tenth of them are 




Fig. 89. — A Profit-Making Flock Cleaning Up the Farm Lane 

On many farms where most of tlie income is derived from other sources a 
flock of sheep would brin^ additional profits, since tliey consume much food 
wiiich Avould otherwise be wasted. (From Breeder's Gazette.) 

refused by sheep. They even prefer some weeds, when yet succulent, 
to the common grasses. Sheep graze more closely than other stock, 
and if many are confined to one field every green thing is at length 
consumed. When closely pastured on cut-over timber lands they 
derive much nourishment from the leaves, bark, and twigs, destroying 
the brush nearly as efit'ectively as goats. The feces of the sli^ep show 
the finest grinding of any of the farm animals, ;ind as they relish 

322 



FEEDING AND CARE OF SHEEP 323 

most weed seeds this further fits them as weed destroyers. As sheep 
graze, their droppings are distributed more uniformly than with 
other stock. At nightfall they instinctively seek the higher, usually 
poorer, land and thus leave their droppings where most needed. 
Thru increasing the fertility of the pastures it grazes, this animal has 
won the title of "The Ciolden Hoof." 

Only a relatively small investment is necessary to start in sheep 
husbandry, since the foundation animals cost but little and the flock 
increases rapidly. Sheep require neither expensive barns nor im- 
plements and only a minimum of care and attention during the busy 
summer season. In wool and in the flesh of her ot¥-spring, the ewe 
gives double returns each year. With fair prices, the wool pays for 
her maintenance, leaving as profit all income from the lamb or lambs, 
after deducting the small cost of the additional feed and care they 
require. Keturns come quickly, for lambs may be marketed 8 or 9 
months after the ewes are bred. AVhile surpassed by the pig in econ- 
om}^ of meat production, the lamb requires less feed per pound of 
product than the steer. Because sheep readily consume food which 
would otherwise be wasted,- a flock will prove profitable on many 
farms where most of the income is derived from other sources. On 
rough or hilly land that cannot be economically tilled sheep may often 
be the main live stock of the farm. Tho the cost of maintaining them 
may be lowered thru their utilization of feed that would otherwise 
be wasted, one must not expect profitable production from such feed 
alone. 

Types of sheep. — The original fine-wool or Merino sheep were de- 
veloped primarily for the production of wool and have bodies which, 
like that of the dair,y cow, are inclined to be angular in form. At the 
other extreme we have the mutton sheep, comprising the middle- and 
long-wooled breeds, which were developed in Great Britain primarily 
for the production of meat, with wool secondary. In shape of bodj^ 
these breeds resemble the beef breeds of cattle, being bloeky and 
compact. During recent years the Delaine-jMerinos and the Ram- 
bouillets have been developed from the original Spanish Merinos witli 
the object of securing a fine-wool sheep that would furnish more mut- 
ton. These are of dual-purpose type, between the two extremes in 
form of body. 

Size of flock. — In the grazing districts of the West thousands of 
sheep carrying more or less IMerino blood are held in single bands 
where the range furnishes sufficient feed, and tens of thousands may 
be successfully fed together, as is still done with range sheep which 
are brought to feeding points in the western states and in the 
Mississippi valley. 



324 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

In the. humid regions, however, two hundred sheep of the mutton 
breeds are <is nuuiy as can usually be successfully managed in one 
flock, for when the farm is lieavily stocked with sheep, the troubles 
from stomach worms and other parasites are greatly increased. The 
begiinier had best begin with a flock of 25, increasing the number as 
exi)erience grows. 

Fattening sheep of different ages. — The following table, giving 
the results of an SS-daj- trial at the IMontana Station,^ shows that 
lambs make much more economical gains than do older sheep: 

Fattening range sheep of different ages 

Average ration Av. vt. Av. Av Feed for 100 

Clover :it 1 ('■ duily t()t;il lbs. gain 

Age wlien fed Barley liay ginnuis gain gain Barley (Mover 

liay 

Lbs. Tj1)s. T>1)s. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lambs 0.7 2.1 (!:', 0.27 23.7 2.-):{ 7(13 

One-year-old wetliers 0.7 3.S 9.3 0.27 23.5 2r)(i 1,413 

Two-year-old wethers 7 4.1 110 0.28 24.3 24S 1,4(59 

Aged* ewes 0.7 2.3 92 0.18 lo.(i 387 1,320 

It will be observed that all lots, except the aged ewes, made prac- 
tically the same daily and total gains. All were fed the same amount 
of grain, but the lambs ate only about half as much hay as the year- 
lings or 2-year-olds. Hence, the gains of the lambs were much more 
economical. In other trials at the same Station, lambs made not only 
more economical but also more rapid gains than yearling wethers. 

Not only do lambs make cheaper gains, but they also bring a higher 
price per 100 lbs., due to the fact that their tender, juicy, well- 
flavored meat is popular with Americans. JMoreover, when the 
animals are fattened as lambs the money invested is sooner returned, 
and there is less risk from death and accident. Therefore, but few 
bunbs are held over to be fattened as yearlings or 2-year-olds. Owing 
to their tendency to grow, lambs fatten mAre slowly than do mature 
wetliers. Since they are making not only fat but also lean meat, the 
ration should be somewhat narrower; that is, contain more protein, 
than is needed for fattening mature sheep. However, a ration which 
is too narrow will unduly stimulate growth, and not fatten them 
properly. The food requirements of fattening lambs of various 
weights are given in Appendix Table V, as are also feeding standards 
for maintaining mature sheep and for breeding ewes. 

Shelter and exercise. — Above evers' other animal on the farm, the 
sheep should be kept dry as to both coat and feet to avoid disease. 
With dry winter quarters sheep will stand severe cold without injury. 
One thickness of matched boards makes the barn or shed where sheep 

1 Shaw, Mont. Bui. 3.5; see also INfont. Bills. 47, .59. 



FEEDING AND CAKE OF SHEEP 325 

are confined sufficiently warm in the northern states, except for win- 
ter lambs. Ample ventilation is of great importance, but drafts 
must be avoided. On the western plains, it is even more necessary to 
protect sheep from cold winds than from rain. Sunshine, good drain- 
age, and conveniences for feeding are the other requisites of a good 
sheep barn. 

In late spring and early summer the flock should be sheltered from 
cold rains, if possible, for exposure is dangerous, especially to young 
lambs. In summer, if there is no natural shade in the pastures, the 
flock should have access to a darkened but well-ventilated shed. A 
fringed curtain thru which the sheep may pass will keep back flies 
from this retreat. In winter a dry yard, having a sunny exposure and 
provided with a well-bedded, comfortable shed opening to the east or 
south, is ideal for fattening laml)s and sheep, except in tlie extreme 
northern states. Here, laml)s sheltered in a well-vcnlihited barn and 
turned out daily for exercise will make slightly cheaper gains. In 
the arid regions, protection from driving winds and sandstorms is all 
tluit i.s essential. Even in the South the sheep should be protected 
from winter rains. 

For the breeding flock abundant exercise thruout the year is essen- 
tial. Fattening animals, however, make better gains if allowed only 
moderate exercise. 

Water ; salt. — Opinions as to the water requirements of sheep vary 
more than with any other domestic animal. In countries with heavy 
dews and ample succulent feed in summer, and where roots are 
largely used in winter, water may possibly be denied sheep, but or- 
dinarily it is a necessity. Because of the danger of infestation with 
internal parasites, drinking from stagnant pools must be avoided. 
On the arid ranges of the Southwest, when grazing on certain succu- 
lent plants like singed cacti, sheep sometimes go two months without 
water. The wise shepherd will under all usual conditions supply his 
sheep with water daily, providing from 1 to 6 quarts, according to 
feed and weather. Ewes suckling lambs, and fattening sheep require 
more water than those being simply carried thru the winter. 

Sheep especially require salt, which should be available at all times, 
for an irregular supply induces scouring. In winter it may be given 
in a trough used only for this purpose. In summer salt may be ren- 
dered doubly useful by scattering it on sprouts growing about stumps, 
on brush patches, or over noxious weeds. 

Grinding grain; cutting or grinding hay.— Of all farm animals, 
the sheep is best able to do its own grinding, and with few exceptions 
only whole grain should be furnished. The common saying of feed- 
ers, "a sheep which cannot grind its own grain is not worth feeding," 



:526 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABUIDCED 

is true. N'ahuihle breeding' slieej) with poor teetii may be eontimied 
in usefulness if given ground grain. Small, hard grains, such as 
wheat, bald barley, and millet, should be ground, or better, crushed 
for sheep. 

Cutting or chopping alfalfa hay of ordinary quality reasonably fine, 
may save 15 to 25 per ct. of the hay.- When hay is cheap, this saving 
is too small to be profitable, but with present prices many large feeders 
are finding: such preparation g'ood economy. The lower the quality 
of the hay, the greater is the saving thru cutting or grinding. 

Self feeders; feed racks. — To save time and laboj:- some feeders 
l)lace sufficient grain for a week or more in a self feeder, and allow 
fattening lambs or sheep to eat at will. This is ordinarily an expen- 
sive practice, since more feed is re(iuired for 100 lbs. gain. Usually it 
is necessary to feed by hand the first 5 or 6 weeks of the feeding period, 
to accustom the sheep to a full feed of grain before them all the time. 
in some districts of the West the practice is sometimes followed of 
starting fattening lambs at once on self feeders filled with linseed 
meal and gradually mixing in shelled corn, until at the end of 2 weeks 
the laml)s are receiving a mixture of 4 parts corn and 1 of linseed meal. 
Jn trials at the Nebraska Station this practice has proven less profit- 
al)le than hand feeding.^ Numerous investigations show that the 
death rate of lambs is usually higher when .self feeders are used, ex- 
cept with a bulky feed like the lighter grades of wheat screenings. 

Morton * reports that under Colorado conditions, when lambs are 
fattened in the open, self-feed hay racks, accommodating 4 lambs per 
foot, 2 on a side, saved sufficient hay, compared with feeding it on the 
ground outside the pens, to pay their cost in 3 seasons. 

Grain and roughage should be fed separately to sheep. If sheep are 
fed in close (piarters the hay should be supplied daily, since they dis- 
like provender that has been "blown on," as shepherds say. In feed- 
ing sheep in open lots, as i.s done thruout the West, racks suffieiently 
large to hold roughage for several days are often used, (irain troughs 
should have a wide, flat bottom, forcing the sheep to eat slowly. Fif- 
teen inches of linear trough space should be provided for each animal. 

II. Hints on Feeding and Caring for Sheep 
Feed and care of ewes. — Experienced shepherds have found that 
ewes which are gaining rapidly in flesh at breeding time are more 
apt to produce twins or triplets than if they are poor in flesh. Hav- 
ing more than one lamb per ewe is most profitable, except on the 

2 Morton, Colo. Buls. 1.51, 1S7. 4 Colo. Bui. 187. 

sGramlich. Nebr. Buls. 170, 173. 



FEEDING AND CAKE OF SHEEP 



327 



western ranges, where but little attention can be given the individual 
ewes. Accordingly, with the farm flock it is advisable to "flush" the 
ewes for 2 or 3 weeks before they are bred; i.e., to supply an abun- 
dance of palatable, nutritious feed, such as rape, cabbage, good clover 
pasture, or grain. This is especially needed if the ewes have run 
down in flesh during summer thru suckling their lambs. 

Breeding ewes which are in good condition in the fall need little 
or no grain in winter until about a month before lambing, if given all 
the bright legume hay they will eat with an allowance of silage or 
roots in addition. At that time, or sooner if they are not in thrifty, 
vigorous condition, they should be given a limited amount of concen- 
trates, up to 0.5 per head daily, with good roughage. When legume 




Fig. 90. — Exercise Is Essential for the Evv^e Flock 

In winter the ewes may be forced to exercise by scattering roughage over a 
nearby field. (From Kleinheinz, Wisconsin Station.) 

hay is fed, a considerable part of the concentrates may be corn, bar- 
ley, oats, kafir, and other carbonaceous grains. ]\Iixed with these 
should be such feeds as wheat bran, linseed meal, and dried brewers' 
grains. 

The best roughages for ewes are the legume hays — clover, alfalfa, 
cowpeas, and vetch — all of which are palatable and rich in protein, 
and help ward off constipation, a serious danger to the ewe. Other 
roughages which are useful to feed with legume hay are bright corn 
fodder or corn stover, oat hay, prairie hay, and oat straw. Timothy 
hay is too constipating for ewes. Two to 3 lbs. of corn silage or 
chopped roots per head daily aids greatly in keeping the ew'es thrifty. 
Too much succulent feed may produce weak, flabby lambs. One-half 
pound of grain, 3 lbs. of legume hay and 2 to 3 lbs, of roots or silage 



328 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABKIDGED 

daily should keep ewes of average size in good eoudilioii during 
the winter. 

To insure a crop of strong, healthy lambs, exereise for the ewes in 
winter is essential. They should have access to a dry, suiniy yard, 
well protected from wind and storm, and on all fair days should be 
forced to exercise by scattering roughage over a nearby field. When 
the snow is deep, paths should be broken out with snow plow or stone 
boat. On stormy days the sheep should remain indoors. 

To avoid udder troubles, ewes should be given but little grain for 
two or three days after lambing, and the allowance gradually in- 
creased with the demand for more milk by the lamb. With good 
roughage not over 2 lbs. of concentrates per ewe daily is necessary. 
Legume hay and succulent feeds are essential at this time, and more 
silage or roots may be safely fed than before lambing. After being 
turned to pasture the ewes need no additional feed, if grazing is good. 

The ram. — For a good landj crop, it is essential that the ram bt; 
kept in thrifty, vigorous condition. He needs no grain while on good 
pasture during summer, but beginning at least a month before breeding 
time some concentrates should be fed. During the breeding season 
he should be fed such muscle-forming foods as bran, oats, peas, and 
oil meal, and not be allowed to run down thru insufficient feed or 
over use. On the other hand, he should never become fat. 

In winter the ram may be kept thrifty on a daily allowance of 0.5 to 
1.0 lb. of concentrates, with good roughage. Some succulent food 
is desirable but mangels and sugar beets should be avoided. Lack of 
exercise injures the ram's breeding powers. Ram lambs need liberal 
rations of muscle-building foods, but should be given little fat-form- 
ing food. 

Lambing time. — In about 147 days after the ewes are bred the 
lambs may be expected. During 24 years, at the AVisconsin Station ^ 
the average birth weight of lambs of the mutton breeds was 9.1 to 
10.6 lbs. for single lambs, 7.7 to 8.5 lbs. each for twins, and 5.5 to 8.2 
for triplets. On the average, 161 lambs were yeaned each year per 
100 ewes during this period, a result which can be secured only with 
good feed and excellent care. 

The shepherd should always be close at hand during lambing time 
to assist the ewes or any weak lambs. It is wise to provide lambing 
pens for the ewes and their newly born lambs. Here each ewe and 
her young may remain for a couple of days until they are wonted to 
each other and the lambs are strong enough to look out for them- 
selves among the flock. 

Raising the lambs. — After about 2 weeks the lambs begin to show 

= lOeinheinz, Wis. Epts. 1902, 1!I07, and infornuitiuu to the authors. 



FEEDING AND CARE OF SHEEP 



329 




a desire for feed in addition to their dam's milk and will be found 
nibbling at the feed trough beside their mothers. They should now 
be provided with both grain and hay at one end or corner of the 
barn which is fenced off by means of a "lamb creep" thru which only 
the lambs can enter. This may be made of two lx6-inch boards, to 
which are nailed lx4-ineh vertical strips about 3 feet long, spaced 
just far enough apart to allow 
the lambs to pass thru but keep 
the ewes back. Within this en- 
closure there should be a low, 
shallow trough with an ob- 
struction lengthwise over the 
top to prevent the lambs from 
jumping into it. In this trough 
should be sprinkled a mixture 
of such feeds as ground oats, 
Avhcat bran, corn meal, and lin- 
seed meal. Fine alfalfa or 
second-crop clover hay is also 
excellent for young lambs. 
The feed should never be al- 
lowed to grow stale. Fresh, 
clean water should also be pro- 
vided. 

The change to pasture should 
be gradual, the ewes and lambs 
being turned on grass for only a few hours at first and then brought 
back to shelter, where more feed awaits them. It is usually best to 
feed the lambs concentrates in addition to pasture and the milk they 
get from their dams. This may be provided by means of a "lamb- 
creep" at some convenient point. 

At 4 to 5 months of age" the lambs should be weaned, for their own 
good and also to give their mothers a rest before another breeding 
season. If possible, advantage should be taken of a cool spell and 
the Iambs and their dams should be so separated that neither can hear 
the bleating of the other. For a few days the ewes should be kept 
on short pasture or dry feed to reduce their milk flow, and atten 
tion must be given their udders. The lambs should be put on the 
best pasture, such as clover or rape, and given a liberal supply of 
grain. 

After weaning, lambs that are to be marketed early may profitably 
be fed grain, but those to be fattened in winter and the ewe lambs to 
be retained for the breeding flock need no grain when the grazing is 



Fig. 01. — Meal time for the lambs. 
Xotice the lamb creep separating the ewes 
in the backgroimd from the lambs. (From 
Kleinheinz, Sheep Management, Breeds, 
and Judging.) 



330 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

good. Kain lambs should be given grain in fall to insure good de- 
velopment. 

Stomach worms. — East of the IMississippi stomach worms are a 
serious menace to sheep raising, lambs being especially liable to at- 
tack. The eggs of the parasite, which are scattered over the pastures 
in the droppings of the sheep, soon hatch and the worms may be swal- 
lowed by the sheep while grazing. Fields on which no cattle, sheep, 
or goats have grazed for a year, and those that have been plowed and 
cultivated since sheep grazed on them, are usually free from worms. 
Old permanent pastures are apt to be infested, as are stagnant water 
pools. 

Trouble from stomach worms may be avoided by changing sheep 
and lambs to fresh pasture frequently. It is especially necessary to 
place the lambs on fresh, clean pasture when they are taken from 
their dams at weaning time. Where sheep are suffering from the 
worms, various drenches may be used. The most common one is 1 
tablespoonful of gasoline for lambs and II/2 tablespoonfuls for large, 
older sheep, mixed with one-third pint of fresh cow's milk and 1 
tablespoonful of raw linseed oil. The treatment should be repeated 
each morning for three days, the sheep getting no feed over night. 

Fattening lambs in the fall. — Finishing lambs for the market in 
the fall is common with farmers who raise their own lambs and with 
many who buy feeder lambs from the western ranges. Until cold 
weather the lambs may be grazed on rape, stubble fields, or other 
pasture, being fed grain in addition. Sometimes the lambs are 
shifted to fields of standing corn after the stubble fields are well 
gleaned. Here they feed on the lower leaves of the corn stalks and 
on rape or turnips sown at the last cultivation, finally eating more 
or less of the corn on the ears. Thrifty lambs placed on feed in the 
early fall should be ready for sale by December or early in January, 
a season when there is usually a scarcity of good lambs on the market, 
since the grass-fed lambs have been marketed and those in winter feed 
lots are not yet finished. 

Fattening lambs in winter. — IMost western lambs are fattened for 
market in winter. As they usually have never had grain, they must 
be started on feed slowly lest some be injured or even killed. At first 
they should be given all the roughage they will eat, with a little grain 
— not over 0.1 lb. per head daily — sprinkled thinly in the troughs. 
The allowance may be gradually increased until in 2 months or less 
they are on full feed. 

Farm-rai.sed lambs take grain more readily, and in some cases but 
3 or 4 weeks need intervene between placing the lambs on feed and 
full feeding. In all cases, before sheep are admitted to the fatten- 



FEEDING AND CARE OF SHEEP 331 

iiig pens they should be examined by an experienced shepherd, and 
if any evidence of scab, lice, or ticks is found, the flock should be 
dipped most thoroly. 

With lambs which have received no grain on pasture, the feeding 
period should last 12 to 14 weeks, depending on their condition and 
the rapidity with which they fatten. For a 100-day feeding period 
the gains should be 25 to 30 lbs. per head. This gain added to a lamb 
weighing originally 55 to 65 lbs. brings it to the size desired by the 



Fig. 92.— Lambs Fattening in a Field op Corn and Soybeans 

]\rany farmers find it profitable to fatten lambs in the fall on rape, stubble 
fields, or standing corn. (From Breeder's Gazette.) 

market, for the demand is now for plump lambs weighing only 80 to 
90 lbs., or even less if from the w^estern ranges. As soon as the lambs 
are "ripe," or when the back and the region about the tail are well 
covered with fat, they should be sold, for further gains can not be 
made at a profit. 

Sheep feeders do not begin operations at an early hour in winter, 
preferring not to disturb the animals until after daybreak. Usually 
grain is first given, followed by hay and water. The trough in which 
grain is fed should be kept clean at all times, and sufficient space 



332 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABUIDGED 

should be provided so each animal may get its share of grain. Reg- 
ularity and quiet are of especial importance with fattening lambs 
and sheep. 

Fattening in the corn belt and eastward. — In the corn belt and 
eastward corn and clover or alfalfa hay are commonly used for fat- 
tening lambs, with or without cottonseed meal, linseed meal, or wheat 
bran. Thruout these districts it is usually most profitable to feed the 
lambs all the grain they will eat after being brought to full feed. 
Feeders frequentl}^ fatten two lots of lambs the same season, market- 
ing the first in January and the second late in spring. Should the 
weather grow warm before the lambs are finished, shearing results in 
better gains. Shelter is required to protect the lambs from winter 
storms. In the corn belt lambs are commonly allowed the freedom 
of small yards with an open shed or barn adjacent, while in the East 
a more forced system of fattening is often followed, the lambs never 
binng turned out from the barn or shed for exercise. In this systemj 
the grain troughs are protected by vertical slats in such a manner 
that there is just room for a lamb to feed in each opening, and ou\y^ 
one space is provided for each lamb. The lambs are brought to full 
feed as quickly as possible, and they are then given all the grain they 
will clean up. With such heavy feeding and scant exercise, card 
must be taken to keep the lambs quiet, and a feeding space must bcj 
closed up whenever a lamb is removed from the pen, for excitement; 
and overeating cause heavy losses from apoplexy. I 

Fattening in the West. — In the West, where hay is cheap compared 
with grain, the allowance of grain is often restricted thruout the fat- 
tening period so the lambs Avill eat more hay. Sometimes haj^ only i§ 
fed, but sheep cannot be made fat enough for the large markets oU 
hay alone. Hence western feeders often give only hay during th0 
first part of the fattening period and later add grain to finish the 
lambs and harden the flesh. AVith a light allowance of grain, the 
lambs must, of course, be fed longer to reach a given finish than when 
they are given all the grain they will eat. The feeds most commonly 
used in the West are corn, barley, or other cereals, with alfalfa hay, 
and with wet beet pulp in the vicinity of the beet-sugar factories. 

In large feeding plants the corral, or enclosure, is commonly di- 
vided into 2 rows of lots with a lane between, each lot accommodating 
from 400 to 500 lambs. No shelter is provided, liut windl)reaks are 
desirable. The hay is usually fed in the lanes, 12 to 14 feet wide, 
extending between the lots. Tho low fences bordering the lanes have 
1 7 or 8 inch space between the first and second boards, thru which 
the lambs feed on the hay. About 1 running foot of lane fencing 
ar-d feed troughs is allowed each sheep. The hay frOm the stacks is 



FEEDING AND CARE OF SHEEP . -V'V.] 

hauled down the lanes and piled along the fences, being pushed up to 
them 2 or S times a day as it is eaten away. 

All lots are provided with flat-bottometl troughs for feeding' grain. 
There is an extra or vacant lot at one end of each row of lots, likewise 
provided with troughs. At feeding time grain is placed in the 
troughs of this extra lot and the lambs from the adjoining lot are 
turned in. As soon as a lot is vacated, grain is put in the troughs 
of this lot, and the lambs enter from the next lot, and so on. At the 
next meal feeding begins by using the vacant lot at the other end of 
the row, reversing the process. The feeding yards are usually located 
on streams or ditches which supply running water. Those on high 
ground have watering troughs into which the water is pumped. Salt 
is liberally furnished in troughs. 

Feeding small bands. — Fattening great numbers of lambs at a 
single point reached its height years ago when corn and wheat screen- 
ings ruled low in price, and the large operator had little competition 
from the ranchman and farmer in tinishing range lambs for the mar- 
ket. Now the price of feed has increased, and the fattening of range 
lambs in smaller bands has rapidly developed in the western states, 
in the corn belt, and farther eastward, ]\Iost fortunately for a con- 
servative agriculture, the large operator, who often receives no ben- 
efit from the great accumulation of rich manure in the feed lot, can- 
not compete with the farmer who fattens one or more carloads of lambs 
and uses the manure for enriching his land. Prudent f.armers rightly 
hold that enough fertility is returned to their land thru the feed lot 
to pay the entire labor cost of feeding. As sheep and lamb fattening 
on range and farm increases, the gradual decline of the old feed lot is 
assured. 

Yield of dressed carcasses; shrinkage.— The slaughter tests at the 
various stations show that lambs and yearlings dress from 48 to 57 
per et., depending on how completely they are fattened, Shaw ° 
states that fattened lambs weighing over 100 lbs., when 4 days in 
transit, will shrink 7 to 8 lbs. per head ; 1-year-old wethers weighing 
about 120 lbs., approximately 10 lbs. ; and aged wethers and ewes 
about 12 lbs. per head. When sheep are marketed off pasture, es- 
pecially rape, excessive shrinkage from scouring may be prevented by 
giving only dry feed for a day or more before shipping. Tb.e con- 
centrate allowance should be decreased for the same reason, and oats 
are the best grain for sheep in transit. 

Hot house lambs. — During recent years an increasing demand has 
developed for winter or "hot house" lambs. The term "hot house" 
does not imply that the lambs are raised in artificially heated quar- 

5 Management and Feeding of Sheep, p. 3G5. 



334 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



ters, but Is used because tliey are produced out of season, as are the 
vegetable products of hot houses. The demand for winter lambs 
comes from tiic last of December to Easter, and the ewes must ac- 
cordingly be bred in the spring instead of in the fall, as usual 
Dorset, Tunis, and Tderino or Rambouillet ewes are commonly used 
for raising winter lambs, for the other breeds rarely breed at the 
right season. After lambing, the ewes are fed so as to yield an 
abundant flow of milk, and the lambs are early taught to eat grain 
and forced rapidly on such feeds as corn, oats, bran, and linseed meal, 
with good legume hay and preferably either roots or silage in addi- 
tion. Thus forced, the best lambs weigh 50 to 60 lbs. at 10 to 12 




Fig. 93. — Angora Goats Clearing Land op Brush 



Goats are especially fond of the leaves and twiss of brush and if pastured 
closely enough will effectively kill the brush. 



weeks, when they are ready for market. Winter lambs must be fat, 
for the condition of the carcass is more important than its size. To 
be profitable, they must sell for not less than $5 per head, and the 
best ones sometimes bring $12. This specialty can be conducted with 
profit only by experts who have nearby markets that will pay the high 
prices such products must command. 

Spring lambs. — A less intensive system than the preceding is the 
production of spring lambs, which are dropped from January to IMarch 
and are usually marketed in May and June, weighing 65 to 90 lbs., at 
a time of the year when there is a good demand. Raising spring 
lambs is especially profitable in Tennessee, Kentucky, Virginia, and 



FEEDING AND CARE OF SHEEP 335 

states to the southward, for here the ewes may be largely maintained 
on pasture thruout the year, thus greatly lowering the feed bill. 

Goats. — The raising of Angora goats for their mohair is an im- 
portant industry in certain districts of the United States, especially 
Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Oregon, and California. In the west- 
ern states the goats graze upon rough land, utilizing browse which 
even sheep would refuse. In the cut-over districts of the North, An- 
gora goats are useful in clearing land of brush at a low expense. 

In Europe the milch goat is of importance as a milk producing 
animal. By their habits they are peculiarly adapted to the needs of 
the peasants, or poorer classes of these countries, and have hence 
been appropriately termed "the poor man's cow." While they have 
not yet become numerous in this country', milch goats are receiving in- 
creasing attention in some districts, as they are especially well suited 
to families living in small towns and in the suburbs of large cities. 
Often they can secure much of their feed by grazing in waste places, 
such as vacant lots and on rocky hillsides. 

In general the same feeds which are used for dairy cows are suitable 
for milch does. From 6 to 8 goats can be kept upon the feed required 
for a cow. A good milch goat should yield 2 quarts or more of milk a 
day and continue in milk for 7 to 10 months. lu the winter such a 
ration as 2 lbs. alfalfa or clover hay, 1.5 lbs. silage or roots, and from 
1 to 2 lbs. of concentrates will be satisfactory for milking does. Often 
the use of refuse from the kitchen will considerably reduce the feed 
bill. The general principles of feeding and care which bave been 
presented for sheep also apply lo goats. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Discuss the place of sheep on the farm, tlie types of sheep, and the size of 
tlie flock. 

2. Why are most sheep fattened as lambs? 

3. What are the requirements of sheep for shelter, exercise, Avater, and salt? 

4. Discuss the preparation of feed for sheep and the use of self feeders. 

5. How would you feed and care for breeding ewes? 

6. State how rams should be fed. 

7. Tell briefly of the feed and care of lambs from birth. 

8. Describe the method of preventing trouble from stomach worms and of llie 
treatment. 

9. Outline the method of fattening lambs (a) in the fall, (b) in the winter. 

10. How are lambs fattened (a) in the corn belt, (b) in the eastern states, (c) 
in the West? 

11. What is the shrinkage of sheep in transit and the usual dressing per- 
centage ? 

12. Discuss the production of (a) hot house lambs; (b) spring lambs. 

13. What is the importance of the two types of goats in this country? 



CHAPTER XXVI 

FEEDS FOR SHEEP 
I. Concentrates for Sheep 

In the following paragraphs, which discuss the value of various 
feeds for sheep, especially for fattening animals, it will be noted that 
nearly all the trials reviewed were with lambs. This is due to the 
facts pointed out in the preceding chapter, that lambs make better 
use of their feed than older animals and that their flesh is in greater 
demand. 

Indian corn. — Corn, the best single grain for fattening sheep, is 
the cereal most commonly used in this country as far west as Col- 
orado, beyond which barley and wheat are more generally fed. Since 
legume hay, rich in protein, admirably supplements corn, the com- 
bination of corn and clover or alfalfa hay has become a standartl 
ration for fattening sheep over a large district. In this chapter 
other rations will, where possible, be compared with this successful 
combination. To show the possibilities of these feeds, below are 
averaged the results from 8 stations with 26 lots, including 527 lambs, 
which were fed an unlimited allowance of shelled corn and either 
clover or alfalfa hay, for periods averaging 90 days. The results are 
also given from 4 stations at which 17 lots, including 1,180 lambs, 
were fed a limited allowance of shelled corn (from 0.7 to 1.1 lbs. per 
head daily) with the same roughages, in trials averaging 92 da3'S. 

Corn and legume hay for fattening lambs 





Initinl 


Daily 


Feed for 100 lbs. gain 


Average ration 


weislit 


gain 


Corn Hay 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. Lbs 



Corn allowance vnlimited 
Slielled corn, 1.3 lbs. 

Clover or alfalfa hay, 1.4 Iba 67 0.32 400 436 . 

Corn allowance limited 
Shelled corn, 0.9 lb. 

Clover or alfalfa hay, 2.1 lbs 60 0.32 288 655 

The lambs given a full feed of corn consumed an average ration of 
1.3 lbs. shelled corn and 1.4 lbs. clover or alfalfa hay and gained 0.32 
lb. per head daily, requiring 400 lbs. shelled corn and 436 lbs. hay per 
100 lbs. gain. The lambs getting the limited corn allowance ate 0.9 

336 



FEEDS FOR SHEEP 



337 



lb. corn and 2.1 lbs. hay per head daily and required 655 lbs. of hay 
and only 288 lbs. of corn for 100 lbs. of gain. From these averages, 
the feeder ma,y readily calculate the cost and possible i>roHts of fat- 
tening lambs under reasonably favorable conditions, and when the 
fattening period is not too extended. 

Hints on feeding* corn. — Being low in protein, corn should be sup- 
plemented with some kind of legume hay, or if this is not available 




Fig. 94. Sheep on Western Range Grazed under the "Mass' 

Method 

From such grazing lands as these come tlie western hinibs fattened in feed 
lots in the western states, in the corn belt, and eastward. ( Krom U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture.) 

then with some protein-rich concentrate, such as linseed or cottonseed 
meal, when fed to fattening sheep or lambs. In each of 7 trials at 
various stations corn and timothy or prairie hay was fed to one lot of 
lambs and corn and clover or alfalfa hay to another. On the average, 
the lambs fed the legume hay gained 0.32 lb. per head daily, while 
those fed the unbalanced ration of corn and timotliy or prairie hay 
gained only 0.19 lb. and required 46 per ct. more grain and 15 per ct. 
more hay per 100 lbs. gain. In 4 other trials, corn and timothy hay 
were fed to one lot of lambs, while another received these feeds and 0.2 



3:J8 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



lb. of linseed or cottonseed meal per head daily. Balancing the ration 
increased the gains over 30 per ct. and saved over 11 ])er ct. of the con- 
centrates and 25 per ct. of the hay required for each 100 lbs. gain. 

Trials at the lowa^ and Illinois- Stations show that it rarely pays 
to grind corn for fattening lambs, except perhaps where they are 
already fairly fat and it is desired to continue feeding them for some 
time. Shelled corn is most commonly fed to sheep but ear corn and 
broken ear corn are satisfactory. Excellent results are secured when 




Fig. 95. Sheep on Range Grazed under the "Open" Method 

When sheep are grazed under tliis improved system more can be carried on 
a given area than under the '"mass" method. ( From U. S. Department of Ag- 
riculture.) 



Iambs are fed ear corn at first, changed to broken ear corn as the feed- 
ing progresses, and finished on shelled corn or coarsely ground corn ; 
i. e.. increasing the preparation as the lambs fatten. 

The other cereals. — Barley, wheat, and the grain sorghums are all 
relatively low in protein and therefore, like corn, should be bal- 
anced with legume hay or some protein-rich concentrate. Wheat and 
bald barley should be crushed or rolled for sheep, but there is not 

1 Evvard, information to the authors. 

2 Coffey, information to the authors. 



FEEDS FOR SHEEP -^^^ 

enough gain from grinding the other grains to pay for the expense. 

Barlr)/ is extensively nsed for fattonin<>' slioeji and himbs thruout 
the western range district, where but little corn is grown. In trials at 
various stations lambs fed good heavy brewing or Scotch barley have 
made nearly as large gains as those fed corn but have required more 
grain and roughage for 100 lbs. gain. Hence in these trials barley 
has been worth 16 to 27 per ct. less per ton than shelled corn. 

Wheat is rarely fed to sheep unless off grade or low in price. Grain 
of good quality is .slightly superior to barley and practically equal to 
corn for fattening sheep. 

The value of wheat screenings varies widely, heavy screenings being 
equal to wheat, while the light, chaffy gradies are more like a rough- 
age than a concentrate. Successful feeders wisely use screenings of 
low grade in getting the lambs on feed and -as fattening advances 
change to the heavier screenings. 

Oats are bulky and, being well liked by sheep, are widely used in 
starting sheep on grain at the beginning of the fattening period. 
They are also excellent for the breeding flock. Owing to their usual 
high price and the fact that they induce growth rather than fatten- 
ing, it is rarely economical to feed much oats to fattening sheep. 
Trials at the Indiana Station ^ show that after lambs are on full feed 
corn as the only grain is as satisfactory as a mixture of corn and oats. 
When oats were used to replace one-third the corn in a trial at the 
Nebraska Station,"* they were worth 2'-] per ct. less per ton than corn. 
At the Iowa Station '' when oats were fed in comparison with corn 
to lambs with clover hay, corn silage, and enough linseed meal to 
balance the ration, the oa4s were worth 31 per ct. less than shelled corn. 

Emmer is an important grain for sheep and lambs in the northern 
plains states. When used as the o^ily grain, it is worth but three- 
fourths as much as corn per 100 lbs., tho its value is somewhat higher 
when fed with barley or corn. 

Kafir and milo, of increasing importance in the .southern plains 
region, are worth slightly less than barley for sheep feeding. 

Miscellaneous carbonaceous concentrates. — Dried hcet pulp is 
equal to corn for growing or fattening lambs, when fed as part of the 
concentrates. Beet molasses is sometimes fed to sheep in the vicinity 
of beet-sugar factories in the West. In some cases no other concen- 
trate is fed, and in others wet beet pulp and a little cottonseed cake 
are added to the ration. To avoid smearing the wool, the molasses is 

3 Skinner and King, Indiana Bute'. 168, 179, 184. 

*Gramli(.'h, Xebr. Station, information to the authors. 

5 Evvard and Diinn, Towa Station, information to the authors. 



340 FEEDS AND FEEDINCx, ABRIDGED 

preferably mixed tlioroly with cut hay or si raw. Hominy feed is 
about ('(|ual to siicHed eoru for fatteniug Iambs. 

Linseed and cottonseed meal. — These urolein-rit-li eonceul rales 
are the supph'meuls most eommouly used with sheep for balaueint^ 
rations low in protein. In 2 trials at the Wisconsin Station "^ the value 
of these supplements was compared when added to a ration of shelled 
corn, corn silage, and legume hay- — a ration low in protein. As eotton- 
f^eed meal is slightly richer than linseed meal in protein, slightly less 
was needed to balance the ration. Both years there was practically 
no difference in the gains of the 2 lots, in the amount of feed i-e(iuir('(l 
for 11)0 lbs. gain, or in the finish of the lambs. Since it was not neces- 
sary to use as much cottonseed meal as linseed meal to balance tlie 
ration, the cost of the gains was slightly less with cottonseed meal. 
Lambs should not receive more than half a pound of linseed or cotton- 
seed meal per head daily, and one-eighth or one-fourth pound is us- 
ually enough to balance the ration. Linseed cake of pea size is bet- 
ter relished b^' sheep than the fiuel}' ground meal. 

Minor protein-rich concentrates. — Field peas and soybeans are 
usually too expensive to form the entire concentrate allowance for 
fattening lambs, but may be used with corn or other grain. Field 
peas produce firm flesh and fed in combination with such feeds as 
corn, oats, and bran are excellent in fitting sheep for shows. 

Wheat bran should form no large part of the concentrate allow- 
ance for fattening sheep, for, like oats, it induces growth rather than 
fattening and is too bulky. When lambs are being started on feed, 
bran is useful for mixing with corn and other heavy concentrates to 
prevent digestive troubles. It is a most valuable feed for breeding 

Dried distillers' grains, dried brewers' grains, nnd gluten feed, 
tho not commonly fed to sheep in this country, have given good re- 
sults in Europe. 

II. Roughages for Sheep 

Legume hay. — The legumes furnish by far the best roughages for 
sheep — in the Last clover and alfalfa hay, thruout the West alfalfa 
with clover and field peas in certain sections, and in the South the 
cowpea, beggarweed, and other plants. It is more important for 
sheep than for cattle that the hay be fine-stemmed and leafy. 

The superiority of legume hay over carbonaceous hay for sheep 
is shown in the following summary of 5 trials at 4 difTerent stations, 
in which rations of clover or alfalfa hay with corn as the sole eon- 

6 Morrison and Klt-inlieinz, unpublished data. 



FEEDS EOK SiiEEF 



341 



centrate have been compared with rations of timothy or prairie hay 
and corn and cotton- or linseed meal, which were equally well bal- 
anced so far as the amount of protein was concerned. 

Legume hay vs. carbonaceous hay for fattening lambs 



Average ration 

Legume hay 

Clover or alfalfa hay, 1.5 lbs. 

Corn, 1.3 lbs 

Carbonaceous hay 

Timotliv or prairie hav, 10 lb. 
Corn,^ 1.0 lb. 
Cotton- or linseed meal, 0.2 lb. 



Initial 


Daily 


Feed for 100 lbs. gain 
Concen- 


■weight 
Lbs. 


gain 
Lbs. 


trates Hay 
Lbs. Lbs. 



.03 



.63 



0.32 



0.24 



3S8 



505 



455 



422 




Fig. 96. Fattening Lambs in a "Western Feed Lot 

In the western states no shelter except a windlireak is commonly provided 
for fattening lambs. In the corn belt and eastward shelter is required to pro- 
tect the lambs from winter storms. (From Wallace's Farmer.) 

Tho the lambs fed timothy or prairie hay received a well-balanced 
ration, those on clover or alfalfa made much larger fjains and re- 
quired less feed per 100 ll)s. jrain. 

Pattt'uinp- hniil)s given all the eorn and l(>guinp liay they will eat 
consume enough of the protein-rich hay. even toward the end of the 
fattening period when on a full feed of grain, to balance the ration 



342 FEEDS AND FEEDING!, AI31UDGED 

quite well. Indeed, the data for 10 trials at various stations show 
that adding linseed or cottonseed meal to a ration of corn and 
legume hay increased the average daily gain only 0.01 lb. and did not 
lessen the amount of feed required for 100 lbs. gain. 

Legume hays compared. — Early-cut red clover hay is one of the 
best roughages for sheep, both for fattening animals and for the 
breeding flock. Alfalfa hay has about the same value as clover, ex- 
cept that, being richer in protein, less is needed to balance a ration 
otherwise low in this nutrient. 

Cowpea hay gives good results with sheep, tho somewhat less val- 
uable than alfalfa hay. Sweet clover hay is a satisfactory roughage 
for sheep, but is inferior to alfalfa hay. In certain sections of the 
West large numbers of lambs are fattened by grazing on field peas, 
usually sown with a small quantity of oats or barley to support the 
vines. The lambs are turned in the fields when most of the peas have 
matured and are fattened in 70 to 120 days, commonly without other 
feed. Sometimes the peas are cut, stacked, and fed to the lambs in 
yards. 

Timothy and other carbonaceous hay. — Timothy hay is unsatis- 
factory for sheep, being both unpalatable and constipating. The dry 
heads of this grass work into the wool, irritating the skin, lowering 
the value of the wool and making shearing difficult. As has been 
shown before, even when a nitrogenous supplement is added to tim- 
othy hay and corn, the ration is still inferior to one of legume hay 
and corn. Marsh hay is too coarse and woody for sheep, and millet 
hay is also unsatisfactory. Bluegrass hay and bright oat straw are 
preferable to any of these. Western prairie hay, tho more palatable 
than timothy, is much inferior to alfalfa. Sorghum hay ranks with 
corn stover, its value depending on its fineness. 

Corn stover and corn fodder; straw. — Next in value to hay from 
the legumes come the dried leaves of the corn plant. For sheep feed- 
ing, corn should be cut early and cured in well-made shocks. The 
sheep will eat a little more of the stalks if shredded, but cutting does 
not induce them to consume any of the coarser parts. Neither corn 
stover nor straw should be fed as the only roughage, tho some may 
often be utilized with profit when given with other more palatable 
roughage, such as legume hay and corn silage. In a trial at the Ok- 
lahoma Station ^ lambs fed 0.8 lb. corn stover, 0.7 lb. alfalfa hay, 1.2 
lbs. corn, and 0.4 lb. cottonseed meal per head daily, made nearly as 
large gains as others fed 1.5 lbs. alfalfa hay and 1.6 lbs. corn, and 
required but little more concentrates for 100 lbs, gain. 

7 McDonald and Malone, Okla. Bui. 78. 



FEEDS FOR SHEEP 343 

III. Succulent Feeds 

Roots. — Roots, silage, pasture and other succulent feeds are ex- 
ceedingly beneficial to the tiock because of their tonic and regulative 
effect. Roots are universally fed in large amounts to sheep in Great 
Britain, famed for mutton of the highest quality. AVhile even lambs 
are sometimes there fed over 20 lbs. of roots per head daily, in this 
country it is not ordinarily profitable to feed over 4 or 5 lbs., and 
even half this much, preferably pulped or sliced, will furnish the 
needed succulence in the ration. 

Averaging the results for 5 trials in which roots have been added 
to a well-balanced ration of grain and alfalfa, clover, or mixed clover 
and timothy hay, we find that the lambs fed roots (3.7 lbs. per head 
daily) gained 22 per ct. more than those fed no roots. In these 
trials 1 ton of roots replaced 174 lbs. of grain and 355 lbs. of hay. 

At the Iowa Station ^ sugar beets ranked fir^t in amount and 
economy of gain, with mangels second, and turnips third. Since 
mangels and sugar beets when fed to sheep tend to produce calculi, 
or stones, in the kidneys or bladder, which are dangerous in the case 
of rams and wethers, these roots should not be fed to males for 
long periods. In the Iowa trials rams died after being fed, on 
rations containing 4.4 lbs. of sugar beets or mangels for 5 to 6 
months. Ewes are not so affected. 

Corn silage. — Trials by American stations show that in most 
parts of this country corn silage is as satisfactory and usually a 
much more economical succulent feed than roots. In 2 trials lambs 
fed corn silage, hay, and concentrates made as large gains as others fed 
roots, hay, and concentrates; in 1 trial, larger gains; and in 4 trials, 
somewhat smaller gains. On the average the lambs fed roots gained 
only 0.02 lb. more per head daily than those fed corn silage. Due 
to the more watery nature of the roots, 1,000 lbs. of silage replaced 
1,449 lbs. of roots. 

The value of corn silage for fattening lambs is well shown in the 
following table, which summarizes 8 trials in which it was added to 
the already excellent ration of clover hay and shelled corn : 

Value of corn silage ivhen added to well-halanced ration 

Average ration 

Lot I 

Corn silage, 1.35 lbs. 
Clover hav, ().!).") lb. 

8helle(l"(oni, l.lf) lbs (51 0.31(5 3i5(5 308 428 

Lot II 

Clover hav, l.oT lbs. 

Shelled "corn, 1.24 lbs til tl.:Jl:; 397 oOT 

s Kennedy. Robbins and Kildce, lowu liul. 110. 



Initial 


Daily 


Feed for 100 lbs. 


gain 


weight 


gain 


Corn Hay 


Silage 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. Lbs. 


Lbs. 



344r FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

Oil llio average, the lambs fed silage ate 0.62 lb. less hay and 0.09 
lb. less corn daily, yet gained sligiitly more tlian those fed clover 
hay and shelled corn. Adding silage to a ration of clover hay and 
corn does not, however, alwaj's result in increased gain, for in 4 
of these trials the lambs fed no silage made the larger gains. Its 
advantage lies rather in the saving of corn and hay recjuired for 
100 lbs. of gain. In these trials 100 lbs. of corn silage saved 7.2 
lbs. of corn and 46.5 lbs. of clover hay. With corn at $.56 per bushel 
and clover hay at $14.00 per ton, the silage fed had a value of $10.45 
l)er ton, or about twice the cost of production on most farms. Be- 
sides cheapening the gains, in these trials the addition of silage to 
the ration usually resulted in higher finish and consequently in a 
greater selling price. Corn silage of good (juality is as valuable 
for the breeding flock as for sheep being fattened for market, but feed- 
ing too much silage to ewes may produce weak lambs. 

Hints on feeding silage. — Trials at the Indiana Station® show 
that lambs fed corn silage as the sole roughage make considerably 
smaller gains than where they are fed legume hay in addition, and 
more care is required to prevent their going "off feed." In still 
other trials ^° it was found best to allow the lambs all the silage 
they will eat, both morning and night, with free access to legume 
hay, rather than limiting the amount of silage fed. 

It has already been shown in this chapter that adding a protein- 
rich concentrate, such as cottonseed or linseed meal, to the already 
well-balanced ration of corn and legume hay is not ordinarily profit- 
able. When corn silage is added to a ration of corn and legume hay, 
all being fed in unlimited allowance, the lambs will eat less of the 
protein-rich hay, the ration thus becoming somewhat unbalanced. 
Jn trials at the Indiana Station ^^ feeding 1 part of cottonseed meal 
to 7 parts of shelled corn increased the daily gains 0.02 lb. and 
slightly decreased the amount of feed required for 100 lbs. gain. 
Feeding more cottonseed meal than this did not increase the gains. 
In some cases rnore profit was made when no cottonseed meal was 
fed, owing to the fact that it was considerably higher in price than 
corn. Whether to add a protein-rich concentrate to a ration of corn, 
corn silage, and legume hay must be determined by each feeder for 
himself, after taking into consideration the prices of feeds, the value 
of the manure, and the time the animals should be ready for the 
market. 

i'SkiiiiitT nml Kin^^ liul. P.iils. KiS, 170. 

i'> C'oHcv, 111. Sta., iiiiormatioii to (lie autliors; Skinner and Kinj,', Ind. T^ul 
ItlS. 

11 Skinner and Kinf?, Ind. Buls. I(i2. IfiS, 170; information to the autiiors. 



FEEDS FUR SHEEP 345 

The numerous instances in which sheep of all classes have died from 
eating moldy or decayed silage show that greater care is necessary in 
administering this feed to sheep than to cattle. As sour silage is apt 
to cause colic and scouring, silage for sheep should be made from well- 
matured corn. 

Silage other than corn. — Sorghum silage from plants sufficiently 
matured to produce silage low in acidity is satisfactory for sheep, 
and may be used in the same manner as corn silage. Where the field 
pea flourishes, the whole plant may be profitably ensiled for sheep 
fattening. In the vicinity of pea canneries, fattening sheep and 
lambs on ensiled pea vines and pods is an important industry, espe- 
cially in Wisconsin. Some dry roughage, such as corn stover or hay, 
is supplied in addition to the silage, and grain or screenings are fed, 
particularly during the latter part of the fattening period. 

Wet beet pulp.^This by-product is extensively fed to fattening 
sheep in the vicinity of the beet-sugar factories in the western states. 
Sheep are commonly given all the pulp they Avill eat, along with 
alfalfa hay, which admirably supplements the pulp, low both in pro- 
tein and lime. Feeding a limited allowance of corn, barley, or other 
grain in addition, is usually advisable. At the Colorado Station,'- 1 
ton of wet beet pulp was equal to 200 lbs. of corn for fattening sheep. 
Pulp is commonly fed to old ewes and wethers, but seems too bulky 
for the best results with lambs. It is especially suited to old animals 
with poor teeth. ^^ 

Pastures for sheep. — As sheep relish weeds and browse eagerly on 
sprouts and brush refused by other stock, they are helpful in cleaning 
up the farm, especially such by-places as lanes and fence corners. 
Of the permanent pastures, bluegrass is the most common in the 
upper Mississippi valley and eastward. Farther south red top is 
prominent, and in the southern states Bermuda grass. In the West 
the native grasses, especially the grama species, furnish much of the 
grazing on the ranges, tho on mountain ranges the food is often mostly 
herbs and the leaves and twigs of shrubs.^* 

The clovers furnish valuable pasture, but great care is necessary 
to prevent bloat when sheep are grazed on them. Alfalfa is especially 
liable to cause bloat and can be recommended as a pasture plant for 
but few sections, altho some skillful flockmasters suffer little loss. 
In some parts of the W^est alfalfa is utilized for winter grazing, as it 
is then so lacking in succulence that danger from bloat is practically 
absent. In the humid regions care is always necessary to prevent 
trouble from stomach worms when permanent pastures are used. 

12 Colo. Bui. 76. 

13 Morton, Colo. Sta., information to the authors. 
"Beattie, Wash. Bui. 113. 



:]46 FEEDS AND FEEDING, AliUIDGED 

Exporicneed shepherds eoinmonly {rrow annual crops to snpph^nent 
permanent pastures when they are short. The earliest grazing is 
usualh' furnished by the cereals, the best of which, according to 
Shaw,^^ is winter rye. Eye is also grown for fall grazing and in 
sections with moderate winters winter wheat furnishes feed during 
the colder months. The sorghums are useful in the plains region, 
altho not especially relished b}^ sheep. Where they flourish, field 
peas, vetches, cowpeas, and crimson and Japan clover all furnish ex- 
cellent pasture. 

Rape is tlie most widely useful member of the mustard family, which 
furnishes several other grazing crops. At the Wisconsin Station,'" 
rape proved much superior to bluegrass pasture for lambs. The best 
results are secured when rape and bluegrass are used in combination. 
]n pasturing rape, care is necessary to avoid losses from bloat, just 
as in pasturing clover. In the mild climate of the Pacific coast 
where it endures the winter, kale provides excellent spring feed. In 
the fall kohlrabi and cabbage may be useful. Both rutabagas and 
turnips are widely grown in Britain for grazing. Shaw suggests 
these Avinter crops for winter grazing in the southern states. 

QUESTIONS 

1. About how large gains should good lanihs make and about how miu-h feed 
will they eat per lOU lbs. of gain (a) when fed an unlimited allowance of corn 
and legume hay; (b) when the corn aik)waiiie is limited? 

2. \\ hat is the value for sheep of barley, wheat, wiieat screenings, oats, emmer, 
and katir compared with corn? 

3. State the value and uses for sheep of at lea^t four protein-rich concentrates. 

4. Discuss the importance of legume hay for fattening lambs. 
.5. Compare the value of four kinds of legume hay for sheep. 

(). To wiiat e.xtent would you use carbonaceous roughages for shee])? 

7. In your own section would you use roots or silage for sheep? NMiy? 

8. Discuss the use of corn silage for sheep. 

!t. What other kinds of silage are useful for sheep? 

10. What is the value of wet beet pulp for slieej) fattening? 

11. What pasture crops are suitable for sheep in your district? State the 
precautions you would take in grazing sheep on clover. 

12. Using local prices for feeds, compute the ration you would recommend for 
fattening lambs weighing 7.) lbs. per head. Follow the method described in 
Chapter VIII and use. the Morrison feeding standards. 



15 Management and Feeding of Sheep, p. 171. 

16 Craig, Wis. Rpt. 1897. 



CHAPTER XXVII 

FEEDING AND CARE OF SWINE 

I. General Problems in Swine Husbandry 

The pig' excels all other farm animals in the economy with which 
he converts feed into edible flesh, recjuiring but 4 to 5 lbs. of dry 
matter to produce a pound of gain, while fattening cattle re(|uire 
from 10 to 12 lbs. The pig yields from 75 to 80 per ct. of his live 
weight as dressed carcass; the steer only 55 to 65 per ct. Moreover, 
pigs will profitably utilize many by-products of the farm otherwise 
lost, such as dairy by-products and kitchen and garden waste, as well 
as grains that cannot otherwise be disposed of profitably. No other 
line of stock farming can so ({uickly be brought to profitable produc- 
tion with limited capital invested in stock and c(|uipmcnt as can the 
making of meat from the pig. Due to this efficiency in producing 
human food, pigs steadily increase in imjiortance as population becomes 
more dense. 

Practically every farmer should raise and fatten pigs, for family 
consumption if not for market, in order to save feed that would other- 
wise be wasted. In many cases he should not only fatten his pigs 
but also slaughter them and market the cured products, obtaining 
increased profits even tho the undertaking be a small one. 

Rate and economy of gains by pigs. — The economy with which 
pigs of difit'erent weights convert feed into meat is shown in the follow- 
ing table, summarizing the data from over 500 feeding trials with more 
than 2,200 pigs at many American experiment stations. In this table 
6 lbs. of skim milk or 12 lbs. of whey is rated as cipial to 1 lb. of con- 
centrates. 

Relation of weight of pigs to feed consumed and rate of gain 



Wt. of pigs 


Actual 
av. wt. 


No. of 

animals 

frd 


Av. feed 

eaten per 

day 


Feed eaten daily 
per 100 lbs. 
live weight 


Av. gain 
per clay 


Feed for 

100 lbs. gam 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


L5 to 50 


38 


174 


2.2 


(5.0 


0.8 


293 


50 to 100 


78 


4i7 


3 4 


4.3 


0.8 


400 


100 to 150 


128 


405 


4 8 


3.8 


1.1 


437 


150 to 200 


174 


4 SO 


5.0 


3.5 


1.2 


482 


200 to 250 


22i; 


300 


(it) 


2.0 


1.3 


498 


250 to 300 


271 


223 


74 


2 7 


1.5 


511 


300 to 350 


320 


105 


7.5 


2.4 


14 


535 



347 



\i-i8 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

This table points out several facts of great importance to the pork 
producer. While the amount of feed eaten per head daily increases 
as the pigs grow larger, the amount consumed per 100 lbs. live weight 
decreases rapidly. In other words, young pigs have a greater capacity 
for consuming feed than older ones per 100 lbs. live weight. The 
average gain per day started at 0.8 lb. for pigs weighing under 50 lbs. 
and gradually increased until those weighing 250 to 300 lbs. showed 
a dail}' gain of 1.5 lbs. The last column, perhaps the most important, 
shows that as the pigs grow older, they require more and more feed 
for 100 lbs. gain, the gains thus constantly becoming more expensive. 
The greater production from the younger pigs is due chiefly to the 
fact that the}^ consume more feed per 100 lbs. live weight and conse- 
quently have a greater surplus from which to make gain after their 
bodies are maintained. Also, 100 lbs. of gain made by 150-lb. pigs 
has somewhat less food value than the same amount made by 250-lb. 
pigs, for the gain of the younger pigs contains more water and less 
fat. Due to the increased cost of the gains as they mature, most pigs 
are now marketed when weighing only 250 lbs. or less. 

Nutrient requirements of sw^ine. — Since pigs are commonly fattened 
for market before maturity, they are growing rapidly as well as storing 
fat in their bodies. Conse(iueiitly their ration should supply ample 
protein and mineral matter for normal growth. The re(]uirements of 
pigs of various ages, as shown in studies by the junior author of the 
numerous trials at American experiment stations, are given in the 
Modified Woltf-Lehmahn standards. 

We have seen in Chapter IV that since horses, cattle and sheep eat 
large quantities of hay, which is relatively rich in calcium (lime), 
their rations ordinarily contain plenty of this mineral nutrient. Pigs, 
however, are not fitted to consume much roughage and are fed chiefly 
on the cereal grains, which are low in calcium. There is, therefore, 
much more danger that their rations may not contain sufficient calcium 
for thrifty growth of the skeleton and body tissues. Pigs on such pas- 
ture as alfalfa, clover, or rape, and those fed skim milk or tankage as 
supplements to corn or other grains, will ordinarily receive sufficient 
calcium. When fed in the dry lot on cereal grains and their b}""- 
products, they should be given additional calcium in the form of ground 
limestone, bone ash, or ground rock phosphate. An abundant supply 
of calcium is especially necessary for young pigs and brood sows. 
When rations are so balanced that they furnish sufificient protein to 
meet the feeding standards, they will also supply enough phosphorus 
for rapid growth. This is due to the fact, brought out in Chapter V, 
that the common feeds which are rich in protein are also high in, 
phosphorus. 



FEEDING AND CARE OF RWTNE 



349 



Grinding or soaking grain. — To find whether it was profitable to 
grind corn for fattening pigs, the senior author, at first alone and 
later with Otis, conducted 18 trials at the Wisconsin Station^ during 
10 consecutive winters with pigs averaging 175 lbs. in weight at the 
beginning of the ti'ials. in each trial one lot was fed a ration of two- 
thirds year-old shelled dent corn and one-third wheat middlings, and 




Fig. 97. — The Scoop Shovel Method op Preparing Corn for Figs 

For pigs under loO lbs. in weiirlit, shellins or grinding corn does not increase 
its value. For older pigs the saving hy grinding is only 4 to G per ct. (From 
Iowa Station.) 

the other lot wheat middlings and the same corn ground to meal. In 
11 of the trials grinding the corn saved from 2.5 to 18.5 per ct. in the 
amount of feed needed for 100 lbs. gain, while in the other 7 trials 
shelled corn gave the best results. On the average, it required 501 
lbs. of whole corn and wheat middlings and only 471 lbs. of ground 
corn and middlings for 100 lbs. gain, a saving of 6 per ct. This means 
that with corn at $1.50 per bushel grinding would save 9 cents on 
each bushel, allowing nothing for labor or expense. It was observed 
that the pigs fed ground corn ate more in a given time and gained 
faster than those getting shelled corn. This no doubt explains the 



iWia. Pvpt. 1906. 



350 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

impression of many farmers that pigs do better on ground than on 
whole com. 

Later trials at tlie Indiana - and Iowa ■' Stations show that until pigs 
reach a weight of about 150 lbs. there is no appreciable benefit from 
grinding corn or even shelling it, ear corn producing the cheapest gains. 
However, after pigs have reached this weight, thej^ chew their feed 
less thoroly and therefore usually make slightl}^ more rapid gains 
and re(iuire somewhat less feed per 100 lbs, gain if the corn is either 
ground or soaked. Whether this saving, which will average 4 to 6 per 
ct., will cover the cost of preparation must be decided by the feeder. 

AVith the small grains, such as wheat, barley, oats, and the grain 
sorghums, more of the grain passes thru the animal unmasticated, and 
therefore grinding pays, even for pigs under 150 lbs. in weight. In 
9 trials at 5 stations in which pigs were fed whole or ground wheat, 
rye, oats, barley, or peas, there was an average saving of 12 per ct. 
by grinding. Where the grain can not be conveniently ground, it 
should be soaked for about 12 hours, but not allowed to ferment. 

Cooking' feed. — Early agricultural authorities strongly advocated 
cooking feed for swine, but numerous trials at several stations have 
proved conclusively that, instead of a gain from cooking, there is in 
nearly every case a loss. In 26 trials in which pigs were fed either 
cooked or uncooked grain (corn, barley, rye, peas, or wheat shorts, 
fed separately or in combination), 89.4 lbs. of uncooked grain was as 
valuable, on the average, as 100 lbs. of the same grain when cooked, 
a loss of over 10 per ct. by cooking. Some few feeds, such as potatoes 
and field beans, are improved by cooking. In winter slop should be 
warmed, but not cooked, for pigs in cold (juarters. 

Water required by pigs. — Dietrich,* who has given the subject 
careful study, concludes that the proper amount of water for. pigs 
ranges from 12 lbs. daily per 100 lbs. of animal at weaning time down 
to 4 lbs. per 100 lbs. live weight during the fattening i)Ci'iod. Unless 
pigs secure plenty of water in the form of slo]), they should be supplied 
with fresh water in a trough or by means of an automatic waterer. 
Dietrich holds that pigs do not usually drink enough water in winter, 
and should be forced to take more by giving it, warm if necessary, in 
their slop. 

There is generally no advantage in wetting feeds, unless the pigs 
will not otherwise drink enough water. When wheat meal is fed, it 
forms a pasty, gummy mass in the mouth, difficult to chew and swallow; 
feeding it as a thin slop largely prevents this trouble. 

2Kinjr, Proc. Amer. Soc. Anim. Prod., 1013, pp. 22-31. 

3 Kennedy and Robbins, Iowa Bui. 1015. 

4 Swine, p. 15G. 



FEEDING AND CARE OF SWINE 



351 



Self feeders. — Evvard of the Iowa Station " has conducted numerous 
trials with self feeders for various classes of swine. His results show 
that this method of feeding is well adapted to the quick fattening of 
well-grown shotes, for fattening old sows, and for growing, fattening 
shotes where it is desired to feed them an unlimited grain allowance. 




Fig. 98. — Fattening Pigs with a Self Feeder 

Pigs self-fed on corn and tanka;ie. with or uitliout other supplements, mnke 
rapid and eeonumical gains. (From Inward, Iowa Station.) 

The self feeder shonkl not be used when rapid gains are not wanted, 
for instance, where it is desired to force pigs to make the maximum 
use of pasturage by limiting the grain allowance. It should not be 
used for growing pigs for the breeding herd, or for pregnant sows, un- 
less some bulky feed, such as ground alfalfa, is mixed with the grain. 
Otherwise they will become too fat. .Much skill is required to keep the 
feeds so proportioned that the animals will not become too fat or too 
lean. Therefore, hand feeding sueh animals is commonly preferable. 
The large and economical gains which may be secured with growing 
pigs self-fed in dry lots on corn and suitable supplements are shown 
in a trial in which 45-lb. pigs were allowed access to shelled corn and 
various supplements in separate self feeders for 162 days. Salt, char- 
coal, and ground limestone were supplied in addition. The pigs in 

5 Proo. Amer. Soc. Anim. Prod., 1014. 



352 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

one lot, consuming an average ration of 6.0 lbs. shelled corn, 0.08 lb. 
oats, 0.10 lb. linseed meal, and 0.40 lb. tankage, gained 1.6 lbs. per 
head daily. They reached an average weight of 316 lbs. at 248 days 
of age, one of them weighing 405 lbs., an unusual record. This lot 
required 417 lbs. of concentrates for 100 lbs. gain. Nearly as large 
gains were made by a second lot, fed shelled corn, oats, and meat meal, 
and by a third lot, fed shelled corn, oats, wheat middlings, linseed meal, 
and meat meal. 

Evvard states that pigs allowed free access to corn and supplements, 
such as tankage, linseed meal, and wheat middlings, show a remarkable 
ability to balance their own ration. At first about 75 per ct. of the 
entire ration was corn and the remainder meat meal and other supple- 
ments. As the pigs grew older they widened the nutritive ratio till 
at the close about 99 per ct. of the feed eaten was corn. All lots 'ate 
a larger proportion of oats during the first few weeks than later, con- 
suming only an insignificant amount of this bulky feed when they 
became well fattened. AVhen pigs are not supplied all the corn they 
will eat it is inadvisable to feed tankage in a self feeder, for because 
of hunger they will eat more meat meal than is needed to balance 
their ration. 

Salt and correctives of mineral nature. — Tho pigs require less salt 
than the other farm animals, they should be supplied with it regularl3\ 
In a trial by Evvard at the Iowa Station " pigs allowed free access to 
salt made better gains than those receiving no salt or others getting 
allowances of one-sixty-fourth, one-thirty-second, or one-sixteenth 
ounce per head daily. Salt may be supplied in a trough or a small 
self feeder. If pigs have not had free access to salt they may at first 
overeat. 

Since the cereal grains are all very low in lime, when pigs are fed 
only on cereals and their by-producfs they will not secure enough 
lime for normal growth. Due to this, pigs when not on pasture often 
greedily devour such substances as ashes, mortar and even soft coal. 
For pigs kept in confinement such correctives as charcoal and sulphur 
are believed by many to be advantageous. Therefore, it is advisable 
to keep some such mineral mixture as the following constantly before 
swine when not on pasture : 100 lbs. ground limestone, 100 lbs. wood 
ashes, 200 lbs. ground charcoal, 50 lbs. salt, and 20 lbs. sulphur. 

Shelter and exercise. — Even in the northern part of the corn belt, 
where the winters are severe, inexpensive shelter is all that is necessary 
for swine. The req\i:sites for healthful winter shelter are freedom 
from dampness, good ventilation without drafts on the animals, sun- 
light, reasonable warmth, and a moderate amount of dry bedding. 

fi Information to tlie authors. 



FEEDTNO AND CARE OF SWINE 



;{5;i 



The quarters should be located on well-drained ground and should 
be so arranged that they may be easily and thoroly cleaned and 
disinfected. 

Swine may be housed in a central hog house having a number of pens 
or in small movable "cabins'' or colony houses. Many use a combina- 
tion of the two S3'stems, for in the northern states the central house 
is well suited for winter shelter and spring farrowing, while the port- 
able houses are particularly useful for housing pigs on pasture. Pigs 









Fig. 99. — One Type op Colony House for Pigs 

Colony houses, whicli are of several types, are especially useful for housino- pios 
on pasture. Note the shade at the rear of this house. (From Fuller, Wisconsin 
Station.) 

wintered in colony houses, especially young ones, require considerably 
more feed than those in warmer ((uarters. This is more or less offset 
by the low cost of the cabins and by the ease with which they may 
be shifted to prevent disease and parasites and to distribute the 
droppings of the animals. In severe weather corn stalks, horse 
manure, or other litter may be banked against the sides of the houses. 
With liberal bedding, all but very young pigs should then be com- 
fortable. When litters come in severe weather a lantern hung in the 
cabin will usually furnish sufficient warmth. 
For breeding stock and growing pigs ample exercise is of the utmost 



354 FEEDS AXn FEEDIXCl, ABRTDr.ED 

importance. To (>nforce exercise ihe animals may l)e fed at a point 
some distance from the central Iiouse or tlie colony houses where there 
are troughs and a feeding floor. When snow covers the ground, paths 
to this place can be broken out with a snow plow. On the feeding 
floor, which should be kept clean and should be covered if possible, 
shelled corn and whole oats may be scattered thinly to force the sows 
or pigs to pick up a grain at a time. Thus they may be kept out of 
their beds and on their feet for hours getting air and exercise. 

Types of swine; breed tests. — The principal breeds of swine are 
of two distinct types, the lard type, of which the Poland-China, lierk- 
shire, Chester-White, and Duroc-Jerscy are the leading breeds, and the 
bacon type, represented by the Tamworth and Large Yorkshire breeds. 
The Ilaniphshires, tho often classed as bacon hogs, really stand between 
the extreme bacon type and the lard type. Lard hogs, which are the 
type connnonly raised in the L'nited States, have compact, wide, and 
deep bodies. Since the hams, back, and shoulders are the most valu- 
able parts, the packer desires a hog furnishing a maximum of these 
cuts. Usually being well-fattened, lard hogs yield a high percentage 
of dressed carcass. Formerly heavy hogs were in largest demand, but 
now i)igs weighing 225 lbs. or less will command the highest price 
under usual conditions. 

During the i)ast few years the "big type" of the lard breeds has 
come into wide favor and is largely displacing the former extreme lard 
type. These hogs are more heavily and strongly boned, are longer and 
taller, and are more prolific. At a given weight they will carry less 
fat than the extreme lard type. Due to this and also to their greater 
^■igor they make more economical gains in weight. 

The bacon pig is raised chiefly in Denmark, Great Britain, and 
Canada, where corn is not the main feed for swine. Pigs of the bacon 
bi-eeils are longer of body and of leg than those of the lard lireeds, have 
less thickness and dei)th of body, and are lighter in the shouldei', neck, 
and jowl. For bacon the i)igs should weigh fi"t)m IGO to 200 lbs. anil 
carry but medium fat, from 1 to L5 inches thick along Ihe back. 

Breed tests have l)een contlucted at several stations to determine 
whether there is any difference in the economy of meat production by 
the different breeds. There was no consistent and uniform difference 
in gains or economy of production, a breed which ranked high in 
some of the tests being surpassed by other breeds in the rest of the 
trials. One should select the breed which seems best adapted to his 
conditions and suits his fancy, and then be sure to secure and to main- 
tain vigorous, well-bred animals of that breed. 

The brood sows. — The most important point.s in the feed and care 
of brood sows ai'e: (1) Rations I'ich in protein and mineral mattei-; 



FEEDING AND CARE OF SWINE 



35:) 



(2) the right amount of feed — not too much or they will get too fat ; 

(3) plenty of exercise ; (4) comfortable quarters — dry, well-ventilated, 
and well-lighted; (5) freedom from constipation, worms, and lice. 

Where sows raise but one litter of pigs a year, they need little or no 
concentrates in summer after their litters are weaned, provided they 
run on first class pasture, such as alfalfa, clover, or rape. Enough 
grain should be fed to keep the sows in thrifty condition, and in any 
event they should get some grain for several weeks before farrowing. 
On good pasture sucli eoiieeutrates as corn, barley, or other cereals 
should form most of the ration, with enough proteiu-rich concentrates 




Colony Hottse.'^ Banked With Straw for Winter 

il)le winter ([uarters for all liiU 



Fig. 100 

Colony liou^es tliiis piotfftcd |)rovide comfi 
small piys, t'M'ii ill llie iioillii'iu tJlatt-s. 



to balance the ration. Where sows raise two litters a year they will 
reciuire more feed, due to the added draft on their bodies. 

In winter it is essential that sows be fed rations containing plenty 
of protein and mineral matter, especially lime and phosphoric acid, for 
these are needed in liberal amounts not only for the proper nourish- 
ment of the bodies of the sows but also for the development of the un- 
born young. Sows fed corn alone will usuall}^ farrow small litters of 
weak pigs, due to the fact that corn is low in protein and mineral 
matter. On the other hand, several trials show that when corn is 
propei-ly supplemented, it may form the chief part of the ration. 
The ration should therefore always, be balanced by the use of such 



356 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

protein-rich foods as alfalfa liay or clover hay, skim milk, tankage, 
linseed meal, wheat middlings, and wheat bran, the nutritive ratio of 
tiie ration not being wider than 1:6 or 1 :7. 

Feeding legume hay to brood sowk. in winter cannot be too highly 
recommended, for it is rich in protein, lime, and vitamines, it is laxa- 
tive, and it furnishes bulk to distend the stomach and intestines prop- 
erly. Indeed, every brood sow should have access to choice legume 
hay in a rack. If sows will not eat much hay, then 25 per et. of 
chopped or ground haj' should be mixed with their feed, or leafy chaff 
which falls from the hay as it is handled in the barn may be soaked 
and mixed with the concentrates. 

The amount of concentrates should be limited so that the sows will 
not become too fat, but on the other hand they must not be allowed to 
become too thin. Constipation, a serious trouble with sows, should 
be warded off by the use of such feeds as linseed meal, legume hay, or 
roots. 

The age at which to breed yomig sows will naturally depend some- 
what on the growth they have made. Seldom is it advisable to breed 
them until they are 8 months old, and many stockmen prefer to wait 
until they are 10 to 12 months old. Sows and boars of the larger 
breeds should reach a weight of 300 lbs. or over at one year if rightly 
fed and managed. Whether to raise 1 or 2 litters a year will depend 
on local conditions, considering the winter climate and the feeds avail- 
able. Where winters are long and severe and the sows and pigs can 
not be given the best of feed and care, it is best not to attempt to raise 
2 litters a year. I'nder the proper conditions, especially where dairy 
by-products are available, 2 litters a year can be raised successfully 
even in the northern portion of the country, the spring pigs coming 
in jMarch or April and the fall pigs in September or early October. 

According to Coburn,** young sows carry their pigs from 100 to 108 
da^'s and old ones from 112 to 115, the average for all being 112 days. 
From the records of 1,477 pure-bred sows of 8 breeds Rommel '' found 
that on an average there were 9 pigs to the litter, 50.1 per ct. being 
males and 4i).9 per ct. females. Likely sows that are kindly mothers 
should be retained for breeders as long as 5 or 6 years if possible. 
Those which produce litters of less than 5 should be discarded. 

The boar. — The feed and care of the boar does not differ materially 
from that of the sows. He should be kept in thrifty condition, neither 
too fat nor run down in flesh, as either extreme may injure his breeding 
powers. In sunnner the boar should run in a pasture lot, and in 
winter he shoidd have the freedom of a small yard adjoining the 

7 Snyder, Ntbr. Bui. 147. » U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Cir. 112. 

8 Swine in America. 



FEEDING AND CARE OF SWINE 357 

pen. About 1 lb. of concentrates daily per 100 lbs. live weight is 
sufficient in summer for fairly mature boars on good pasture. Young 
boars need enough concentrates to keep them growing thriftily. In 
winter 2 lbs, of concentrates daily per 100 lbs. live weight with roots 
and alfalfa or clover hay should suffice. During service the boar 
requires more feed than at other seasons. 

At farrowing time. — About 5 days before farrowing the sow should 
be separated from the other hogs and placed in a sunny farrowing pen 
to become accustomed to her surroundings. Her ration should now 
be reduced and consist of cooling, laxative feeds, such as legume hay, 
roots, and a slop made largely of wheat bran or shorts, with per- 
haps linseed meal and ground oats. By enforcing exercise for brood 
sows, preventing constipation, and keeping them thrifty thru feed- 
ing a well-balanced ration, little trouble will be experienced from 
sows eating their new-born pigs. If a sow has a feverish udder, which 
often is a result of constipation, a light application of kerosene and 
lard, well rubbed in, will relieve the pain. 

The farrowing place should be comfortable, dr}-, well-ventilated, and 
so sheltered that a deep nest is not necessary to prevent the new-born 
pigs being chilled, for they may be crushed in a deep, bird-like nest. 
Cut straw or hay, chaff, and leaves are the best for bedding provided 
they are reasonably free from dust. Long hay or straw may entangle 
the pigs. A plank fastened with the edge against the wall, placed 
about 8 inches from the fioor and standing out 8 inches from the sides 
of the farrowing pen lessens the danger of the mother crushing her 
young. In the case of heavy, clumsy sows, separate the pigs from the 
dam by placing them in a warm box or barrel for a couple of days. 
Sows properly handled before farrowing will not usually resent sucli 
separation. The pigs will then be safe, and the attendant can pass 
them to the dam for nourishment at short intervals. A chilled pig 
may be revived by immersion in water as warm as the hand will 
bear. 

The weights of the pigs at birth range from le.ss than 1.5 lbs. to 
over 3 lbs., about 2.5 lbs. being the average with our common breeds. 

Care of sow and litter.— For the tirst 24 hours after farrowing only 
lukewarm water should be given the sow unless she shows a decided 
desire for feed, when a little thin, warm slop may be offered. The 
ration for the following 4 or 5 days should be light, after which she 
should gradually be brought to full feed, as her milk tlow increases. 
The coarse feeds, so useful at other times, nuist now largely give way 
to rich concentrates, chietiy corn, barley, or other grains to furnish 
carbohydrates, with plenty of protein-rich feeds, such as skim milk, 
tankage, linseed meal, wheat middlings, etc., to balance the ration. 



SScS FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABKIDGED 

Five per et. by weiglit of alfalfa or elovcr hay may well bo inchub'd 
ill the eoncentralo mixture for sueUliiig sows, or they may still be al- 
lowed access to legume hay in a rack if pasture is not yet available. 
The concentrates may be fed in the form of a slop or else fed dry. It 
is important that sows with litters be fed liberally, for at no other time 
will feed give such large returns. Good mothers with large litters will 
usually lose flesh in spite of the most liberal feeding. 

Feeding the litters. — ^Within 2 or 3 weeks the unweaned pigs should 
be encouraged to eat with the mother by providing slop in a shallow, 
low-set trough. Because the sucklings cannot frilly satisfy their 
hunger by such provision, there should also be provided additional 
feed inside a creep, so that the dam cannot get it. In this a rich slop 
may be furnished in a low trough, or a palatable mixture of eon- 
i-eiit rates may be fed in a self feeder. Finely grouutl, dusty eon- 
eentrates had best be fed to young pigs in a sloj), as the dust nuiy 
irritate the luisal passages. For young i)igs dairy by-products, in 
combination with various ground grains and milling In-produets, are 
easily the best of all feeds. For very young pigs there is nothing 
better than ground oats, with the hulls sieved or floated out, and red 
dog flour. Corn, barley, katir, and milo meal, dark feeding flour, 
flour wheat middlings, and ground ennner with the chatt* removed, 
etc., may all be freely used for sows and pigs as the young things come 
on. Soaked whole corn thinly scattered over a feeding floor gives feed 
and enfor-ces exercise. Pigs well fed before weaning grow faster aud 
draw less on the sow — a matter of importance where the litters are 
large. 

Where 1 litter of pigs is raised a year, the pigs nuiy run with their 
dams 10 or 12 weeks, or the sow may be allowed to wean her pigs hi'r- 
self. However, when 2 litters are to be rai.sed, the pigs nuist be 
weaned at the age of about 8 weeks. The sow should be separated 
from the i)igs and only returned 2 or 3 times long enough for them 
to empty the udders. On weaning, pigs of the same size should be 
placed in groups of not over 20 in ortler that each may I'eeeive its 
share of feed and proper care and attention. 

Growing and fattening pigs. — (lootl pasture should always be pro- 
vided thruout the entire growing season foi" all swine, but ])asture is 
especially importanit for young pigs, as it keeps them growing thriftily 
and also greatly reduces the cost of the gains made. In addition to 
such pastui'e as alfalfa, clover, or rape at least 2 lbs. of concentrates 
daily per 100 lbs. live weight should he t'ed, except wliei'c ])asture is 
uiuisiuilly cheap compared with grain, and the allowance of concen- 
trates should never be less than 1 lb. daily ])er 100 lbs. live weight. 
I'igs should gain at least one-half to three-fourths pound ])er day. 



FEEDING AND CAKE OF SWINE 



359 



In the corn belt, self-feeding pigs on pasture has become a common 
practice, except for breeding stock. Where the amount of concen- 
trates fed in summer on pasture is limited, the pigs should be tinished 
on all the concentrates they will eat, hand-fed or self -fed, after they 
have been well grown. In the corn belt when new corn is ready, pigs 




Pig. 101. — A Carload of Bacon Ptos at the Stock Yards 

The Large Yorksliiri's, .shown in the illustration, and the Taniworths have been 
specially deveh)ped for the production of high-quality bacon. Note the length of 
body and leg of these pigs. 

are (luite commonly finished on new ear corn or snapped corn, along 
with a suitable protein-rich supplement. Turning pigs into stand- 
ing com to "hog down" the crop is often an economical practice, 
as is pointed out in the next chapter. 

Whether to crowd spring pigs to an early finish by self-feeding them 
concentrates on pasture or whether to force them to consume more 
pasture by restricting their concentrate allowance, will depend entirely 
on the relative prices of grain and pasture and the prices for pork at 
the various times in the fall and winter. ]\Iany corn belt farmers find 
it most profitable to have the spring pigs farrowed earl}' and then to 
crowd them on self feeders to an early market, so as to sell them in the 
fall before the usual slump in the price of pork occurs. In the West 
where alfalfa pasture or other pasture is cheap, compared with grain, 
it is usually more profitable to restrict the allowance of grain and 



:^6() FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

finish tlio pjfrs for a later market, perhaps after prices have recovered 
somewhat fi'om the usual fall slump. 

Pigs should always be provided with an abundance of fresh water 
in a trough or an automatic waterer. If self feeders and automatic 
waterers are used, it should be borne in mind that these labor saving- 
devices do not permit the feeder to forget about his pigs. If he 
expects good profits he must give them daily attention, seeing that the 
feeders and waterers are working properly and cleaning them out 
when necessary — in short see that all is going well with the animals. 

Bacon production. — In northern Europe, especially Denmark and 
Ireland, raising bacon-type pigs and feeding them so as to produce 
the highest quality of bacon, is an industry of great importance. In 
this country, however, nearly all the pigs are of the lard type, the 
bacon on the market being obtained from lard-type pigs which do not 
carry too much fat. For the production of high-ciuality bacon, the 
carcass should show much less fat in proportion to lean meat than in 
lard hogs, and the fat should be firm and solid. Soft pork unsuited 
to the production of high-quality bacon is due on the part of the 
animal to unthriftiness, lack of exercise, immaturity, and lack of 
finish, and only in a small way to the breed. In general, improper 
feeding stutt's and feeds improperly combined tend to produce low- 
quality bacon. Corn, beans, soybeans, and peanuts all tend to produce 
soft pork. Barley ranks first for bacon production, followed by oats 
and peas. Skim milk and whey in combination with the cereal grains, 
including corn in limited amount, make good bacon. Rape, roots, 
and clover are helpful, but too much succulent feed should not be 
used. For choice bacon, pigs should be fed slightly less than the full 
ration. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Compare pigs Avith the other farm animals in economy of gains. 

2. Discuss the nutrient requirements of swine. 

3. Does it pay to grind corn or other grain for pigs? 

4. Wliat feeds would you cook for pigs? 

5. Tell about (a) the water requirements of pigs; (b) the requirements for 
salt and mineral correctives. 

G. When would you use self-feeders for swine? 

7. Discuss the subjects of shelter and exercise for swine. 

8. Describe the types of swine. 

1). Point out briefly the most important points in feeding and caring for 
brood sows. 

10. How would you feed the boar? 

11. Tell about the feed and care of the brood sow before and after farrowing. 

12. Discuss (a) the feeding of young pigs; (b) finishing shotes for market; 
(c) bacon production. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

FEEDS FOR SWINE 

I. Carbonaceous Concentrates 

The digestive organs of the pig are of limited capacity compared 
with those of other farm animals, for pigs have neither the large four- 
fold stomach of ruminants nor a caecum of large size, as has the horse. 
While in cattle the digestive organs with their contents comprise over 
14 per ct. of the total weight of the body, in pigs they make up but 7 
per ct. of the body weight. Pigs therefore require feed that is more 
concentrated and digestible and less woody than do horses, cattle, and 
sheep. In nature the pig is an omnivorous feeder, living not only 
on the seeds, leaves and tender stems and roots of plants, but on 
animal matter as well. Moreover, he lives close to the earth, gather- 
ing some of his food from beneath the surface and swallowing con- 
siderable earthy matter in so doing. The intelligent swine feeder 
bears all these facts in mind in feeding his herd. 

Indian corn. — This imperial fattening grain is the common hog 
feed in the great pork-producing districts of America. As has been 
pointed out before, corn is low in protein compared with its wealth 
of carbohydrates and fat, and is also deficient in mineral matter. 
Hence, even for fattening well-grown pigs, much larger and more 
economical gains are secured when this grain is properly supple- 
mented by feeds rich in protein and mineral matter, especially cal- 
cium, or lime. This is clearly shown in the following table, which 
summarizes the results of 32 trials at various stations, averaging 82 
days, in each of which one lot of pigs was fed corn alone and another 
lot corn and a protein-rich concentrate, such as tankage, wheat 
middlings, linseed meal, pea meal, or soybean meal. 

Corn alone vs. corn and nitrogenous supplement for pigs 





Initial 


Daily 


Feed for 100 


Average ration 


wei?ht 


sain 


lbs. gain 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lot I, total of ISO pigs 








Corn, 4.8 lbs 


115 


0.9 


602 


Lot II, total of 187 pif/s 






Corn, 4.:} lbs. vSupplement, 1.4 lbs 


117 


1.3 


441 



Altho most of these pigs were well grown when placed on trial, 

3G1 



362 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

averaging over 100 lbs. in weight, Lot II, fed corn and a nitrogenous 
supplement, made over 40 per ct. larger gains and required 27 per et. 
less feed for 100 lbs. gain. Had they been younger at the beginning 
of the trials those fed corn only would have done even poorer. These 
trials show that one cannot afford to feed corn alone to growing, fat- 
tening pigs. Corn alone gives fair results for fattening mature sows, 
but even here the use of a supplement is advisable. As has been shown 
in the previous chapter, for brood sows it is highly importanc that 
feeds rich in protein and lime be fed with corn. 

In the corn belt corn is usually fed on the cob. This is a wise 
practice, for as we have seen in the previous chapter, there is no 
appreciable advantage in shelling, grinding, or soaking corn for pigs 
under 150 lbs. in weight, and it is doubtful whether even for older 
ones the slight saving will pay for such preparation. Pigs do better 
on ear corn than on corn-and-cob meal, for their digestive organs 
can not well utilize a hard, fibrous material like corn cobs, even when 
ground. 

Hogging down corn. — In the corn belt many farmers turn pigs 
into fields of standing corn, in which rape or other supplemental crops 
have usually been sown, and let them do their own harvesting. In 
three trials at the Minnesota^ and Iowa" Stations this "hogging 
down" system was compared with feeding ear corn in a 3'ard, either 
wheat middlings or tankage being fed to all lots in addition. The 
pigs hogging down corn in which rape or rye had been sown at the 
last cultivation made larger gains and required 10 per ct. less con- 
centrates for 100 lbs. gain than those fed ear corn in the yard. 

In tests at the Iowa Station rape was grown in the corn field at an 
additional cost of only $0.40 per acre, rape and pumpkins at $1.00, 
rye, soybeans, or cowpeas at $3.33, field peas at $3.60, and hairy vetch 
at $6.00 per acre. Feeding some protein-rich concentrate, such as 
skim milk, tankage, wheat middlings, or linseed meal, is always de- 
sirable, and is especially important when no supplemental crops have 
been grown in the corn field. Spring shotes, well grown on pasture 
and forage crops, are generally used for hogging down. Provided 
the ground is not muddy, pigs hogging down corn pick it up as closely 
as is usually done in husking. The pigs should be confined to limited 
areas by fencing, so that they will clean up each area in 20, or better, 
in 14 days. 

The other cereals. — In Europe harley is the most esteemed cereal 
for the production of high quality bacon and in this country is im- 
portant as a feed for pigs in the western states. In 6 trials at west- 

1 Gaunmitz, Wilson, and Bassett, Minn. Bui. 104. 

2 Evvard, Iowa Bui. 143. 



FEEDS FOK SWINE 



36;] 



ern stations pig^s fed ground barley and wheat middings made slightly 
smaller gains than others fed ground corn and middlings, and re- 
quired 10 per ct. more feed for 100 lbs. gain. 

Wheat is slightly superior to corn for fattening pigs ^ but when of 
good quality it is usually too expensive to be fed to stock. Grain 




Ftg. 102. — Fattentng Pigs Hogging Down Corn 

Pigs hoosincj down corn in which rape or other supplemental crops have been 
sown make larger and cheaper gains than those fed ear corn in a dry lot. ( From 
Evvard, Iowa Station.) 

which is damaged in quality and is not suited for milling may be 
worth nearly as much as sound grain for pig feeding. 

Rye meal ranks a little below corn meal and is about equal to barley 
meal as a feed for pigs. 

Oats are too bulky to serve as the only grain for fattening pigs and 
are usually costly compared with other cereals. In trials by the 
senior author* on.e-third oats and two-thirds corn gave better results 
than two-thirds oats and one-third corn. Toward the close of the 
fattening period but little oats should be fed. For brood sows oats 
are excellent, and for little pigs notliiug excels ground oats with the 
hulls sifted out. 

Emmcr is also too bulky to give the best results when fed as the 

3 Weaver, Mo. Rul. 13G; Eastwood, Ohio Bui. 268. 

4 Wis. Rpt. 1889. 



364 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

only grain to fattening pigs. A mixture of emraer and corn, how- 
ever, gave nearly as good results as corn alone in a trial at the Ne- 
braska Station,^ both lots getting alfalfa hay in addition to the grain. 

The grain sorghums are of great importance for pork production 
thruout the western plains states. In trials at the Kansas Station " 
pigs fed ground milo or kafir with wheat shorts and tankage made 
nearly as large gains as others fed corn, shorts and tankage, and re- 
quired only 2 to 5 per ct. more feed for 100 lbs. gain. Feterita and 
kaoliang ranked somewhat below kafir or milo, and sorgho grain was 
still less valuable, being rather unpalatable. 

Seed from hog or hroom-corn millet is satisfactory for pigs when 
ground and mixed with other feeds. At the South Dakota Station ^ 
pigs fed millet meal required 20 per ct. more feed for 100 lbs. gain 
than others fed barley meal. 

As we have seen in the previous chapter, it pays to grind all the 
smaller cereals for pigs, tho sometimes it is advisable to scatter whole 
oats thinly on the ground or a feeding floor to force brood sows to 
exercise. Barley, wheat, rye, and the grain sorghums are all low in 
protein and, like corn, should be fed with protein-rich feeds, such as 
iskim milk, tankage, wheat middlings, linseed meal, and soybeans. 

Hominy feed. — In trials at the Indiana - and Ohio ^ Stations hominy 
feed was slightly superior to corn for pigs. On the other hand in 
recent trials by Evvard at the Iowa Station hominy feed was worth 
slightl.y less than corn. Probably hominy feed from which the oil 
has not been expressed, and which contains the corn germs is fully 
equal to corn. 

Garbage. — Kitchen waste may be fed to swine, but care must be 
taken that dishwater containing lye or washing soda, broken dishes, 
etc., which are apt to cause death, be kept apart from the materials 
having food value. As there is likewise danger of poisons resulting 
from the decay of the garbage, the material should be thoroly cooked 
in all doubtful cases. 

II. PROTEiN-Ricn Concentrates 

Skim milk and buttermilk. — Rich in digestible protein and high 
in mineral matter, especially calcium and phosphorus, skim milk and 
buttermilk are ideal supplements to the cereals. Indeed, where skim 
milk or buttermilk is used as a supplement to corn or other cereals 

5 Burnett and Snyder, Nebr. T5ul. 00. 

c Waters, Kin/er, Wright, and King, Kan. Bui. 102; Cochel, Kansas Indus- 
trialist, May 1, 1015. 

- Wilson and Skinner, S. D. Bui. S3. 

8 Skinner and King, Ind. Bui. 158. 

9 Eastwood, Ohio Bui. 268. 



FEEDS FOR SWINE 365 

for growing, fattening pigs, the gains will usually be slightly larger 
than where other protoiii-rieh feeds, such as tankage, wheat middlings, 
linseed meal, or soybean meal, are fed as supplements. These dairy 
by-products are especially valuable for young pigs after weaning and 
also for brood sows. If no water has been added, buttermilk is fully 
equal to skim milk for pig feeding. 

It has been emphasized before that skim milk, buttermilk, or whey 
should always be pasteurized at the creamery or cheese factory before 
being returned to the farm, in order to prevent the spread of disease, 
especially tuberculosis, to which pigs are particularly susceptible. 

Proper proportion of milk to grain. — Skim milk and buttermilk 
are too watery and also too rich in protein to produce economical 
gains when fed alone. They should therefore always be fed with the 
cereals or such carbonaceous concentrates as hominy feed. The pro- 
portion of skim milk or buttermilk to be fed with corn or other grain 
will depend first on the age of the pigs and next on the relative price 
of the feeds. After sufficient milk has been supplied to balance the 
ration, any addition will not increase the rate of gain and may even 
lower it if too much is fed. 

Just after weaning 4 to 6 lbs. of skim milk to each pound of corn 
will be sufficient, to make maximum gains with pigs in a dry lot. As 
they grow older the proportion of skim milk or buttermilk needed to 
balance the ration decreases as follows: Pigs weighing 50-100 lbs., 
3 lbs. milk to 1 ib. corn ; pigs weighing 100-150 lbs., 2-2.5 lbs. milk 
to 1 lb. corn; pigs weighing 150-200 lbs. or over, 1.5-2.0 lbs. or less. 
(See Appendix Table V.) Pigs on such pasture as alfalfa, clover, 
or rape need less milk to balance the ration. 

Considerably more milk maj^ be fed than is here stated with satis- 
factory, results when a surplus is at hand ; tho it will not have so high a 
value per 100 lbs. as when only sufficient is fed to balance the ration. 
This is shown in trials by the senior author at the Wisconsin Sta- 
tion ^'^ in which a total of 88 pigs, usually weighing 100 lbs. or over, 
were fed different proportions of skim milk and corn meal. AVhen 
1 to 3 lbs. of skim milk was fed to 1 lb. of corn, 327 lbs. of milk saved 
100 lbs. of corn. However, with 3 to 5 lbs. of milk for each pound of 
corn it required 446 lbs. of milk to save 100 lbs. of corn ; and with 
5 to 7 lbs. of milk per pound of corn, 574 lbs. 

Money value of skim milk. — In recent trials at the Wisconsin Sta- 
tion ^'"^ skim milk has been compared with tankage as a supplement 
to corn or barley, since tankage is about the l)est commercial sub- 
stitute for skim milk. When just enough skim milk was fed to 

II' Wit;, llpt. 1S!J5. lOa Morrison and IJolistcdl, iinimMi.^lied data. 



;{(;ii 



FEEDS A XI) FKEDIXd, AP.IMDdED 



balance the ration, 100 lbs. of skim niill< was worth c^ie-half as much as 
a l)u.shel of shelled eorn, wilh cnni at prices since Ihc WorUl AVar. 
Wlien more skim milk is fed ihaii is needed to balance the ration, the 
additional amount will be worth oidy about half as nuieh, as the 
pigs use this extra amount not for tlie formation of protein tissues, 
but merely for making fat, thus wasting the nitrogen of the protein 




Fig, 103. — Pigs Self-Fed Corn and Tankage on Alfalfa Pasture 

On such a eoinbiiiation of feeds, growiiijj ])i>:s iiiiikc lar^c and econoniieal .uiiiiis. 
Even on ah'alfa pasture, it is advisable to feed tankaj^e or some other supijlement 
with shelled eorn. (From Wisconsin Station.) 

ill the skim milk. For developing suj)erior breeding stock skim milk 
has evtMi a higher value than for producing pork. 

Whey. — Whey such as is obtained from American cheddar cheese 
factories contains only a fair amount of protein, having a nutritive 
ratio of 1 :6.8. However, the protein it does contain is admirably 
suited to balance the deficiencies of the proteins of the cereal grains. 
For this reason pigs over 150 lbs. will make good gains on only whey 
and corn or barley.^"" Younger pigs should be fed protein-rich feeds, 
such as tankage or linseed meal, in addition. Whey is worth about 
half as much per 100 lbs. as skim milk. Skimming whey does not 
nuiterially reduce its feeding value. Sliuhtly sour whey has as high 
value as sweet whey, but it must not be allowed to putrefy. 

i»h^rorri>on and P.ohstedt, Wisconsin Sinlion. uiipulilished data. 



FEEDS FOR SWINE 367 

Tankage; meat meal. — The value of tankage or meat meal as a 
supplement to corn and other carbonaceous concentrates has been 
demonstrated in trials at many stations and by experience on many 
farms. Kich in protein which is well-balanced in composition, and 
likewise high in calcium and phosphorus, tankage is excelled only by 
skim milk and buttermilk in producing thrifty growth and large gains. 
Since tankage or meat meal for stock feeding is thoroly cooked under 
pressure at a high temperature, there is no danger of spreading disease 
by its use. 

Trials at various stations show that when highgrade tankage, carry- 
ing .55 per ct. of protein or over, is fed as the sole supplement to corn 
to pigs over 100 lbs. in weight, not over 9 to 10 per ct. is needed to 
balance the ration. With mature pigs even less tankage need be fed. 
With young pigs soon after weaning it is advisable to feed as high as 
20 per ct. of tankage, or better, 9 to 10 per ct. of tankage and sufficient 
linseed meal, wheat middlings, etc., to provide the proper amount of 
protein for animals of this age. Where a lower grade of tankage is 
fed, the amount supplied should be correspondingly increased. For 
pigs fed corn on such protein-rich pasture as alfalfa, clover, soybean, 
cowpea, or rape, 5 per et. of high grade tankage is enough to balance 
the ration for pigs 100 lbs. in weight or over. When pigs are follow- 
ing steers being fattened chiefly on corn, it will pay to feed the pigs 
one-fourth to one-third pound of tankage per head daily. 

Wheat by-products, — Wheat iniddlliif/s, or shorts, are a populai- 
protein-rich supplement for pigs. They are fairly rich in protein 
and are high in phosphorus, but an^ rclalively low in lime. Kecent 
trials by Morrison and Bohstedt at the Wisconsin Station show that 
middlings are not a satisfactory sujiplement when fed with corn, 
barley, or other grain to pigs not on pasture. Pigs so fed usually 
make low gains, probably due to the poorly balanced nature of the 
proteins that such a ration furnishes. However, satisfactory results 
are secured where middlings are used as a supplement to the cereals 
for pigs on pasture or where they are used along with tankage or 
dairy by-products, which contain proteins which balance the de- 
ficiencies of the proteins in the cereals and middlings. While pigs not 
on pasture will make considerably larger gains if fed corn and tank- 
age than if fed corn and middlings, a combination of the three feeds 
excels even com and tankage. 

Red dog flour and flour wheat middlings are worth somewhat more 
than standard middlings, as they contain more protein and also over 
10 per ct. more total digestible nutrients. Red dog flour is especially 
useful for quite young pigs, which need a highly digestible, palatable 
feed containing little flber. 

Wheat bran is too bulkv to be fed in large amounts to fattening 



:568 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

pigs, middlings being far preferable. Where clover or alfalfa hay, 
roots, or other cheap bulky feed are not available, a limited amount of 
bran is excellent for brood sows, as it is bulky and also laxative. 

Linseed meal. — Linseed meal is conniionly used, especially in the 
northern states, as a supplement for swine. It gives excellent results 
as a supplement to the cereals when fed to pigs on pasture or if used 
along with tankage or dairy by-products. Recent trials by Morrison 
and Bohstedt at the Wisconsin Station show, however, that linseed 
meal is not a satisfactory supplem(>nt when fed with corn, barley, or 
other cereals to pigs not on pasture, probably due to the fact that the 
proteins of such a ration are unbalanced in composition. Especially 
for brood sows, it is often highly beneticial to add a small amount 
of linseed meal to the ration on account of its laxative etfect. 

Other protein-rich concentrates. — Cottonseed meal, as now pre- 
pared, is poisonous to swine, and no uniformly successful method of 
feeding it has yet been found, tho a few feeders, guided by experi- 
ence, use it with little loss. If cottonseed meal is not fed continuously 
for over 40 days and does not form over one-fourth of the ration, and 
if the pigs are freely supplied with green forage or graze on pasture, 
the risk is slight. It is considered safe to have pigs follow steers 
which are being fed cottonseed meal, for the meal does not seem to be 
poisonous after passing thru the cattle. One should see that the steers 
do not throw so much meal out of the feed boxes that the pigs may 
be poisoned by eating it. 

Field peas, rich in protein, are well suited to supplement corn and 
the other cereals. In certain irrigated mountain valleys of the West 
large numbers of pigs are fattened by turning them into iields of 
peas, or peas grown with oats or barley, after they have matured, an 
acre of good peas producing about 400 lbs. of gain. 

Pigs fed soybeans and corn made slightly larger gains than others 
fed linseed meal and corn at the Indiana Station," and required some- 
what less feed for 100 *lbs. of gain. No more soybeans should be fed 
than is needed to balance the ration, for when fed in large amount 
they produce soft pork, dark in color. They are commonly ground 
for pigs. 

Cowpeas are of great importance in the South for economical pork 
production. The seed may be used as a supplement to corn or other 
carbonaceous feeds, or the pigs may be turned in to harvest the crop 
when the pods are well matured. 

Peanuts, likewise of great importance for pork production in the 
South, are commonly harvested by letting the pigs gather the crop. 
Peanuts alone produce soft pork, but this may be overcome by feed- 

11 Skinner and Cochel, Ind. Buls. 120, 137. 



FEEDS FOR SWINE 369 

ing corn during the last part of tlie finishing period. Peanuts can be 
grazed during only a relatively short season, for after a time the nuts 
sprout or rot i^ 'eft in the ground, especially in wet weather. 

Gluten meal and gluten feed give satisfactory results when fed with 
corn and some other supplement, such as skim milk, tankage, or lin- 
seed meal. It Is not advisable, however, to use these corn by-products 
as the sole supplement to corn for pigs in the dry lot, for the pigs 
then receive only corn protein, which, as we have seen in Chapter IX, 
is somewhat unbalanced in composition. 

Rice hran and rice polish are economical feeds for pigs in the rice- 
growing districts of the South, 100 lbs. of rice polish being efpuil to 
I'A'A lbs. of corn, and 100 lbs. of rice bran equalling 112 lbs. of corn.^- 

III. Forage Crops, Pasture, and Other Succulent Feed; Hay 

Value of forage crops and pasture. — Thru the use of suitable forage 
and pasture crops, pork may be produced at a much lower cost than 
where pigs are maintained in dry lots on expensive concentrates alone. 
Spring pigs will thrive amazingly on good pasture supplemented by a 
limited allowance of concentrates and if not finished by the close of the 
pasture season will be in condition to make most economical gains in 
the dry lot. Not only do pigs at pasture make cheaper gains, but the 
succulent feed and the exercise they obtain aid in keeping them thrifty 
and healthy. "When pigs are fed in dry lots it is difficult to save the 
manure unless they are confined closely, and thus much fertility is 
wasted. With pigs at pasture the manure is uniformly distributed 
on the fields. By using forage crops thruout the growing season and 
legume hay during the winter the cost of maintaining brood sows may 
be materially reduced. Tho pasturage is of prime value for pigs in 
all sections of the country, it is especially important in the southern 
states, where, by a well-selected rotation of pastures, green feed may 
be furnished nearly the entire year. 

As Evvard of the Iowa Station '^ writes: An ideal forage for hogs 
should show: (1) adaptability to local soil and climate; (2) palatabil- 
ity; (3) a heavy yield of digestible nutrients, being high in protein 
and mineral matter, especially calcium and phosphorus, and low in 
crude fiber; (4; succulence; (5) long pasturing season; (6) ability to 
endure grazing; (7) permanency; (8) reasonable cost and ease of 
seeding; (9) capability of furnishing quick pasture at any time during 
the growing season. "These essentials are not found in any single 
forage, but alfalfa, the clovers, and rape have most of them." 

Amount of grain to feed on pasture. — Owing to the high price of 

12 Dvoracliek, Arkansas Sta., information to the autliora. 

13 Iowa Bui. 1:56. 



370 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

concentrates, it is a question of prime importance to find how much 
of them should be fed to pigs on pasture. It is never profitable to 
force young pigs to live on pasture alone, for even on the best alfalfa, 
clover, or rape pasture they barely maintain their weight. Except 
in districts of the West where alfalfa is abundant and grain unusually 
high in price, it is usually most protitable to feed 2 lbs. or more of 




njaiaSlr«iJ«A.,< 




^^^'^fi^'"^^^^™^*^""'^ 



Fig. 104. — ^Alfalfa Excels as a Pasture for Pigs 

Where alfalfa thrives, it is the best permanent pasture for pigs, on account of 
the rapid grains it will produce and the large number of pigs it will carry per 
acre. ( From The Field. ) 

corn daily per 100 lbs. of pigs than to feed less, even when the pigs 
are on good pasture. Full-grown brood sows not suckling pigs will 
fatten with less grain while on pasture than will growing pigs. 

Alfalfa pasture. — Wherever it thrives alfalfa is the best perma- 
nent pasture crop for pigs, as these animals do not bloat. It provides 
pasturage during a longer season than any other single crop, starting 
early in the spring and remaining green and succulent in late sum- 
mer when bluegrass has dried up and even clover grows hard and 
woody. Since the heavy pasturing of alfalfa is injurious to the stand, 
the number of pigs should be restricted and the plants allowed to grow 
vip, being cut for hay 2 or 3 times a year. In tests at the Iowa Sta- 
tion by Evvard and Kennedy ^* in which pigs were fed corn and tank- 

14 Iowa Bui. 136. 



FEEDTNO AND CAKE OF RWTNE '5'1 

age on alfalfa pasture the alfalfa produced 62:] to 865 lbs. of pork 
per acre, after deducting the gains to be credited to the concentrates 
fed, and without crediting the alfalfa with the hay cut from the pas- 
ture. In one trial an acre of alfalfa, supplemented by corn and 
tankage, carried an average of over 16 spring pigs for 180 days, pro- 
ducing 1.05 lbs. of gain per head daily, in addition nearly 2 tons 
of hay was cut per acre from the plot during the season. 

Pigs fed com alone on alfalfa pasture make fairly satisfactor\- 
gains, since the alfalfa goes far toward balancing the corn. IVIore 
rapid gains are, however, secured when some supplement is fed, 5 l])s. 
of tankage to 95 lbs. of corn (or an equivalent amount of otlier s\\\)- 
l)lements) being sutticient for pigs weighing 100 lbs. or over. 

Clover pasture. — In the northern and central states red clover is 
one of the most valuable pasture crops for pigs, being surpassed only 
by alfalfa and perhaps by rape. Since early pasturing may kill 
clover, pigs should not be turned on until it has made a good growth. 
Clover does not furnish as constant a supply of succulent feed as does 
alfalfa, tending to become woodj' late in the summer, but clipping will 
greatly aid in inducing a new growth. On soils too wet or too acid 
for red clover alsike clover may be grown. Especially in the south- 
eastern states crimson clover, sown as a winter annual, furnishes valu- 
able spring pasture for pigs. 

On soils not well adapted to alfalfa or red clover, swrrt clover may 
often be used to advantage as a pasture for pigs. The first year's 
growth is best suited to pigs, as it is less coarse aiul woody. To en- 
courage the growth of new shoots the crop should be ])astnred reason- 
ably close and the tall growth clipi)ed with a mower. 

Rape pasture. — Over the greater part of the northern laiited States 
rape is a most excellent annual forage crop for swine. As it may 
be sown both early and late in the season, forage nmy be provided at 
any desired time. The best yields are usually obtained with spring 
seeding and if the crop is not pastured too closely growth will con- 
tinue until fall. Pigs should not be turned on the rape until it is 
10 to 14 inches high and when it is pastured down to 4 or 5 leaves to 
the plant the animals should be transferred to another plot to giv.' 
the crop a chance to recover, or preferably, fewer pigs should be 
pastured per acre. On good soil an acre of rape should furnish graz- 
ing for 16 to 20 pigs or even more thruout the entire season. Trials at 
the Wisconsin Station "" show that in the northern states a mi.xture 
of oats, tield peas, and rape is slightly better than rape alone. 

In 6 trials at corn-belt stations in which rape pasture was compared 
with alfalfa, the pigs on rape pasture made practically as large aver- 

ii'^i ?^Iorris(in and r.ohstcdt, niijjiililislied data. 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



age gains as tliose on alfalfa pasture and required only 340 lbs. of con- 
centrates per 1 00 lbs. of gain, which was slightly less than the pigs 
on alfalfa required. Where alfalfa thrives, it surpasses rape, chiefly 
because it need not be reseeded each year and also because it is a 
legume and thus builds up the soil. Evvard of the Iowa Station ^■' 
found that the portion of the rape plant oaten by pigs is nearly as rich 
in protein, on the dry matter basis, as is alfalfa, and that 5 lbs. of 





hhi. 1<>'). — Rape Is One of the Best Anxiai, Ckdi's for Pigs 

Over most of the northern states, rape is tlie best annual forage eroj) for pigs, 
f\irnishing excellent pasture from early summer till late in the fall. ( l<"roni Wis- 
consin Station.) 

tankage (or an equivalent amount of other supplements) to 95 lbs. 
of corn is enough for pigs weighing 100 lbs. or over, when on. good 
rape pasture. 

Other pasture crops. — Field peas, sown either alone or with oats 
or oats and rape, are a most satisfactory summer forage crop for pigs 
in the North. As has already been mentioned, large numbers of pigs 
are fattened on field peas in certain districts of the West. 

Soyheaii pasture in the North is surpassed by alfalfa, clover, rape, 
and field peas, except perhaps on light, sandy soil, where the soybean 
may produce a larger crop. In the South, however, the soybean is 
one of the best allies of the pork producer. In three trials at the 
Alabama Station'" the feed cost of 100 lbs, gain by pigs fed corji 

^■- Iowa TJul. i:!(). 

i''(iray, Hidgcway, and F.udaly, .Ma. I'lil. ir)4. 



FEEDS FOK SWINE 373 

meal on soybean pasture was only $2.59 to $3.36, with corn at 70 
cents per bushel and soybean pasture at $8 per acre. Soybeans are 
often grown with corn and the combined crop hogged down. 

Especially on poorer soils in the southern states, the coivpea is an 
important forage crop for swine, as it flourishes where other legumes 
will not produce good crops. Cowpeas are excelled by soybeans where 
the latter thrive, as they yield more seed. Like soybeans, cowpeas 
and corn are frequently hogged down. 

As has been already mentioned, peanuts are an important crop for 
fall feeding in the South. Velvet heans furnish excellent pasture for 
pigs in the extreme South where they thrive. 

Among the permanent grasses, hluegrass provides the best pasture 
thruout the northern states. As bluegrass makes little growth dur- 
ing mid-summer, other crops should be provided for this season, the 
hhiegrass being relied on for grazing in spring and early summer and 
again in early fall. With pigs fed corn on bluegrass, a somewhat 
larger allowance of protein-rich supplements is needed than on legume 
or rape pasture, tho very young bluegrass is fairly rich in protein. 
In the South, Bermuda grass furnishes the best permanent grass pas- 
ture for pigs. 

^Yheat, rye, oats, and harleij are unexcelled for fall and early 
spring pasture in the North and for pasture from late fall thruout 
the winter and spring in the South. Winter rye and winter oats will 
furnish pasture thruout the entire winter in the South, greatly de- 
creasing the cost of maintaining brood sows and raising fall pigs. 

Bipe grain, usually rye, bald barley, or wheat, is fre(iuently hogged 
down, the pigs being turned into the field when the crop is nearly 
ripe. This practice is especially common in the grain districts of the 
Pacific Northwest, where the summers are dry. It is doubtful whether 
it is generally profitable to hog down the small grains in the humid 
districts, if labor can be secured to harvest the crop. 

Especially on grain farms of the AVest, stubhle fields are an impor- 
tant factor in economical pork production. Where the grain is har- 
vested by the header, considerable is left ungarnered and this was 
formerly wasted ; now many farmers are hog fencing their fields and 
turning pigs on the stubble to glean the scattered heads of grain. 
Gains made on such waste are almost clear profit. 

Roots. — We have seen in previous chapters that for cattle and 
sheep silage from corn and the sorghums is about as satisfactory a 
succulent feed as roots, and usually costs much less. With pigs, how- 
ever, silage will not replace roots, for they can not utilize large 
amounts of such coarse, fibrous feeds as silage. The value of roots 
for pig feeding is well shown by the average results from 8 trials at 



374 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

various stations, in which the pigs in one lot were foci an average of 
5.4 lbs. of (H)nt'ontrates per head daily and those in a second lot 3.6 
lbs. of concentrates and 5.6 lbs. of roots. The pigs given no roots 
i-equired 41)9 lbs. of concentrates for 100 lbs. of gain, while those fed 
roots in addition required only 358 lbs. of concentrates and 631 lbs. of 
roots. In these trials each 448 lbs. of roots saved 100 lbs. of concen- 
trates. AVith the high prices now ruling for concentrates, many 
farmers can profitably grow roots for winter succulence for their pigs. 
Danish farmers grow no Indian corn, and yet, by means of waste prod- 
ucts of the dairy, purchased feeding stuffs, and root crops, mostly 
beets, they lead the world in the production of pork, both as to quality 
and also as to quantity, considering the area of the country. 

Roots not only add variet}' to the ration but reduce the amount of 
concentrates required, and aid in maintaining the health of the ani- 
mals. On account of their slightly laxative etfect and their bulkiness, 
roots arc valued by many breeders as a feed for brood sows. They will 
jiol, however, take the place of legume hay, as they are not rich in 
protein or lime. Roots are also valued for young pigs, but in finishing 
pigs the allowance of roots should be reduced, or the desired finish 
will not be secured. Where climate permits, pigs may be turned into 
a field of roots in the fall to gather the crop. 

The relative feeding value of the various root crops depends on the 
amount of dry matter they yield per acre in any particular locality. 
According to Day,^' sugar beets are most readily eaten by pigs, man- 
gels ranking second in palatability. 

Potatoes should be cooked for pigs and fed with concentrates, pro- 
tein-rich feeds being included in the ration. In various trials 340 to 
442 lbs. of potatoes have saved 100 lbs. of grain. 

Sweet potatoes are an excellent root crop for fall and early winter 
feeding in the South, especially for the cut-over pine lands. Planted 
in June and early July, they are ready for feeding by the middle of 
October. Since the tubers are low in protein, pigs grazing sweet po- 
tatoes should be given such feeds as soybeans or cowpeas. 

Silage. — Clover, alfalfa, or other legume hay is generally more sat- 
isfactory for pigs than silage of any kind. Corn silage is too woody 
and too low in disestible matter to be valuable for swine. If shotes 
and breeding stock live on a limited allowance of rich concentrates 
alone, they "may suffer from lack of proper bulk in the ration. In 
such eases, if roots or legume hay are not available, even corn silage 
will be liel|)ful in distending the digestive tract. 

The legume hays. With the prices of feeding stuffs ruling high, 
the swine fecdcM' must make the largest possible use of alfalfa, clover, 

IT Productive Swine Husbandry, p. 206. 



FEEDS FOR SWINE 



375 



veteh, cowpea, soybean, and other legume pasture in summer, and in 
winter feed freely of well cured hay from the legumes, in order to 
have healthy animals and to keep down the cost of production. The 
finer parts of clover and alfalfa hay, especially the first cutting of 
clover and the last cutting of alfalfa, are often as valuable for feed- 
ing pigs as is the same weight of expensive wheat middlings. The 
southern planter has a specially choice list of equally valuable legumes 
including hay from cowpeas, soybeans, peanuts, etc. Legume hay may 




Fig. ion. — Brood Sows Eating Alfalfa Hay fkoim Racks 

Fine, well-oiired lejjiime hay slioiild lie provided for all brood sows and nniy 
often be used with profit for other pigs. (From Breeder's Gazette.) 

be fed to pigs from slatted racks or from boxes with openings low on 
the sides from which the animals can eat at will. The legume liays 
not only furnish protein, so essential for building all the lean ment 
tissues and the organs of the body, but they also carry much calcium 
(lime), which is needed in bone building. They are therefore doub\v 
useful in supplementing Indian corn and the other cereals, which are 
rather poor in both protein and calcium. 

Leafy, bright alfalfa hay is the best of all hays for the pig. Not 
only is this hay useful for brood sows and stock pigs but it is a cheap 
and fairly et^cient supplement to corn or the otlier cereals for fatten- 
ing pigs. While fattening cattle and sheep will consume enough 
alfalfa hay to make a fairly well balanced ration with corn, the fat- 



376 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABKIDGED 

lening pig has not this capacity for roughage, and hence will not con- 
sume enough hay to balance his ration sufficiently to produce maxi- 
mum gains. For example, in trials at the Kansas Station ^'^ pigs fed 
a ration of 6.6 lbs. of corn and 0.9 lb. tankage gained 1.58 lbs. per 
head daily, while others fed 6.5 lbs. corn and 1.2 lbs. alfalfa hay in a 
rack gained only 1.13 lbs. With corn at $19, alfalfa hay at $8, and 
tankage at $41 to $45 per ton, the pigs fed tankage made cheaper 
gains than those fed alfalfa hay. 

On the other hand, with corn and barley at $20, tankage at $40, and 
alfalfa hay at $5 per ton, the Colorado Station ^^ found alfalfa a much 
more economical supplement than tankage. Whether to use alfalfa 
hay or purchased concentrates to balance the ration of fattening pigs 
will therefore depend on the relative price of these feeds. Alfalfa 
hay is most efficient as a supplement in fine winter weather when the 
pigs have good appetites for the hay and corn. In unfavorable 
weather or when the pigs are out of condition the use of some nitroge- 
nous concentrate, like tankage, linseed meal, or shorts, aids in stimu- 
lating the appetite and hence results in larger gains. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give tlie results of feeding trials in Avhioli eorn has been fed alone and 
with a supplement to pigs. 

2. Discuss the hogging down of corn. 

.3. What is the value for pigs of wheat, rye, oats, emmer, the grain sorghums, 
millet, hominy feed? 

4. What is the best sujjplement to corn from the standpoint of gains pro- 
duced? 

5. How much skim milk would you feed per pound of corn to jiigs of various 
weights? 

6. What is tlie value or rjuci-emiUR and whey for pigs? 

7. How much tankage is needed to balance the ration of corn-fed pigs? 

8. Discuss the value for pigs of the other protein-rich concentrates fed to 
swine in your locality. 

9. Name .0 essentials of a good forage crop for pigs. 

10. What are the best forage crops for swine in your locality, and wliy are 
they tlie best? 

11. Discuss tlie value of roots and of silage for swine. 

12. How may legume hay be used in swine feeding? 

18 Waters and Kinzer, Kan. Bui. 192. 

19 Morton, Colo. Bui. 188. 



CHAPTER XXIX 

FEEDING AND CARE OF POULTRY 



Poultry liusbandry is a generalized rather than a specialized indus- 
try, for no other class of live stock is kept so widely, yet relatively few 
rely upon poultry raising for their main income. Both on the farm 
and on the city lot poultry consume much waste material, converting 
it into highly nutritious and palatable eggs and meat. On the farm, 
poultry occupy a distinctive i)lace, for a fair-sized flock may be kept 
to a considerable extent on land occupied by crops. Here they will not 
only gain much free food, but they will also benefit the crops by devour- 
ing injurious bugs, grubs, and worms. They are largely cared for 
by the women and children, and thus do not compete for labor with 
other lines of farming. General conditions are highly favorable for 
the farm flock of moderate size, even tho the feeding and care often 
receive little attention. Range is 
abundant, numerous buildings and 
trees provide protection from sun 
and wind, and epidemics of disease 
are much less serious than where 
large numbers of birds are kept 
under intensive conditions. It is 
due to these advantages of the farm 
flock tliat most of the spectacular, 
large scale poultry enterprises have 
failed. 

In the economy with which she 
produces human food, the hen 
ranks next to the pig, as is shown 
in Chapter V. She returns 5.1 lbs. 
of edible solids (water-free) in 
eggs or 4.2 lbs. in meat from 100 lbs. of digestible matter in her ration. 
When poultry are kept as a side-line, their economic efficiency is 
really greater than these figures indicate, because a large part of their 
food is material that would otherwise be wasted. 

Importance of poultry. — Under the term poultry are included fowls, 
turkeys, ducks, geese, swan, guineas, pigeons, peafowl, and pheasants. 

377 




Fig. 107. — A Brood of Profit 
j\Iakers 

Chicks make use of many waste 
products and may be easily raised on 
the farm or on a city lot. (From 
Halpin, Wisconsin, Station.) 



378 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

In aggregate value the annual j'icld of poultry and eggs in the United 
States amounts to $750,0()(),()()(), exceeding the value of all the gold, 
silver, iron, and coal mined annually in this country. According to 
the Census of 1910, over 88 per ct. of all the farms reported flocks of 
poultry, the average farm income from poultry for these farms being 
$105, in addition to the eggs and meat consumed on the farm. The 
value of the eggs produced in this country amounts to about twice as 
much as the value of the meat. 

Of the total number of poultry in the United States, about 95 per ct. 
are chickens, about 4 per ct. ducks, turkeys, and geese, and the remain- 
ing 1 per ct. guineas, pigeons, pheasants, and other domestic birds. 
Because of their importance, the following discussions deal al- 
most entirely with chickens. The popularity of chickens is due to the 
fact that they are usually much better egg producers than the other 
species and that they, moreover, furnish a most convenient source of 
fresli meat on the farm. 

The digestive system of poultry. — The digestive tract of poidtry is 
(juite different from those of the larger farm animals. Poultry have 
no teeth with which to chew their food, the teeth and lips being replaced 
by a horny mandible on each jaw, which forms the beak, or bill. Such 
soft feeds as vegetables, green herbage, or meat can be torn into pieces 
by the beak, but hard substances like grain are swallowed whole. Since 
no chewing is done in the mouth, abundant saliva is not needed and 
the salivary glands are imperfectly developed. 

From the mouth the food is forced down the gullet into the crop, a 
pouch-like enlargement of the gullet just before it enters the body 
cavity. No enzymes are secreted in the crop, but the feed is softened 
as in the paunch of ruminants, such hard materials as grain remaining 
in the crop about 12 hours. From the crop the food passes thru the 
second part of the gullet into the glandular stomach, where the gastric 
juice is secreted. Passing thru the glandular stomach, the food, with 
the acid gastric juice, enters the gizzard, or muscular stomach. This 
is a powerful, muscular grinding apparatus, with a tough, horny lining, 
and in it the food is finely ground with the aid of small stones and 
grit. The gizzard has a truly remarkable grinding and crushing 
power, being able to bend pieces of iron and wear smooth the edges of 
pieces of broken glass. 

From the gizzard the partially digested food passes into the small 
intestine, in which the digestive processes are similar to those in the 
other farm animals. The large intestine in poultry has but small ca- 
pacity. It consists of a small rectum and two caeca, or blind guts, at 
the juncture of the small intestine and the rectum. A further pecu- 
liarity of poultry is that the urine and feces are not voided separately, 



FEEDIN(J AND CAKK OF POULTRY 



379 



LOWLB MANDIBLE 
TONGUE 

OPENING TO TRACHEA 



MUSCLES CONTROLLING 
TONGUE 

OPENING INTOGULLET 




GIZZARD 



PANCREAS 
DUODENAL LOOP 



Fig. 108. — The Digestive System of the Fowl 

The dijxcstive system of the fowl differs in several respeets from tliosc of tiie 
larger farm animals. (From Lippincott, I'ouUry I'rodtivlion.) 

but both are excreted thru a common chamber, the cloaca. Most of 
the water in the urine is reabsorbed in the cloaca, and the urine is 
voided as a whitish paste with the feces. The nitrogenous waste is 
excreted chiefly in the form of uric acid, instead of as urea, as with 
mammals. 

Nowhere in the digestive tract of poultry does much digestion of 



^80 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

crude fiber take place. The food remains in the crop too short a 
time for any appreciable digestion there thru bacterial action, such as 
occurs in the paunch of ruminants, and little bacterial action ta]<es 
place in the large intestine. Due to this, crude fiber has little value for 
poultry, but serves simplj^ to give bulk to the ration. Hence, the feed 
of poultry must be more concentrated in character than that for other 
farm stock. 

Digestibility of feeds by poultry. — Since the urine is not voided sep- 
arately by poultry, digestion trials can not be conducted satisfactorily 
in the same manner as with other animals. In general, the digestibility 
of feeds by poultry resembles that of swine, tho poultry digest even 
less fiber. The digestibility of grain for poultry is not increased by 
grinding, as all seeds are ground fine in the gizzard, if grit is available. 

Feeding standards and nutrient requirements of poultry. — Owing 
to the fact that satisfactory digestion coefficients have not been obtained 
for poultry, our knowledge of their actual nutrient requirements is 
less definite than for other classes of stock. Wheeler of the New 
York (Geneva) Station^ has presented the most complete standards 
which have yet been advanced. These, converted to the same terms 
as the IModified Wolfit'-Lehmann Standards, are given in Appendix 
Table V. It will be noted that poultry require a much larger amount 
of nutrients per 1,000 lbs", live weight than do the other farm animals. 
This is due to their small size and the consequent greater radiation 
of heat from the body, and to their high body temperature and great 
activity. No figures are given for the amount of total dry matter, 
but, as mentioned previously, on account of the nature of their diges- 
tive tract, rations for poultry must be more concentrated than for 
other stock, even swine. 

The nutritive ratios recommended for growing chicks and for lay- 
ing hens are narrower than for nearly all other classes of farm animals. 
This is because chicks and other young poultry grow very rapidly in 
proportion to their size and hence store large amounts of protein 
in their bodies. Laying hens require a narrow nutritive ratio be- 
cause they are yielding a product very high in protein. Eggs con- 
tain about 65.9 per ct. water, 12.8 per ct. crude protein. 10.6 per 
ct. fat, and 10.7 per ct. mineral matter. The protein thus forms 
about 38 per ct. of the total dry matter. On account of these facts, 
rations for growing and laying poultry should contain a rather 
larger proportion of protein-rich feeds than for other farm animals. 
For fattening poultry less protein is needed and the nutritive ratio 
may range from about 1 : 6.2 for young birds which are still growing 
to 1 : 8 for mature poultry. 

1 Jordan, The Feeding of Animals,, pp. 393-5. 



FEEDING AND CARE OF POULTRY 381 

Mineral matter. — The shells of eggs, which comprise about 11 per ct, 
of their total weight, consist almost entirely of calcium carbonate 
(carbonate of lime). Laying hens must therefore have a supply of 
calcium in addition to that furnished in the grains and other common 
feeds. Trials by Halpin - at the Wisconsin Station show that calcium 
is as important as any other part of the ration. Hens produced but 
few eggs when fed rations excellent for egg production except that 
they were deficient in calcium. When plenty of calcium was su])plied 
a normal yield of eggs was secured. 

Ouster shells are the best form in which to supply calcium. They 
should be placed in hoppers or boxes in the poultry houise so that the 
fowls can help themselves. Clam shells, sometimes used in place 
of oyster shells, are not considered as good. Growing chicks require 
an abundant supply of both calcium and phosphorus for the building 
of their skeletons and body tissues. Therefore, unless the feeding 
stuffs of the ration furnish an abundance of these mineral nutrients, 
they should be supplied by giving some form of bone. Granulated 
hone and hone meal are most commonly used. CJreen cut bone, dis- 
cussed in the following chapter, furnishes both mineral matter and 
protein. Trials at the New York ((Jeneva) ^ and Rhode Island * Sta- 
tions indicate that ground bone is a better source of these minerals 
than is rock phosphate. 

Grit, or crushed rock, should also be supplied poultry to aid in the 
grinding of feed in the gizzard, unless they have access to plenty of 
coarse sand or fine gravel. Several kinds of rock are crushed for grit, 
the best form being a light-colored lime rock. Commercial grits are 
commonly furnished in chick size, medium, and large size. 

Animal food. — Trials at various stations indicate that for the best 
results poultry should receive animal food of some kind. When given 
abundant range in summer they secure it in the form of bugs, grubs, 
and worms. Opportunity for range has a two-fold advantage, for in 
addition to the free animal food, the poultry destroy insects which 
would damage crops. W^henever the insect and worm supply runs 
.short, one of the substitutes discussed in the following chapter should 
always be provided. 

Salt; water. — Salt is needed by poultry as well as by other stock 
and therefore a small amount should be added to the mash. Wheeler ■' 
recommends 5 ounces per 100 lbs. of feed for mature stock but ad- 
vises that young stock be given no salt until 2 months old. 

2 Information to the autliora. 

3 Wheeler, X. Y. (Geneva) Bui. 242. 
4Hartwell and Kirkpatrick, R. L Bui. 145. 
5N. Y. (Geneva) Rpt. 2U. 



:-{82 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



A constant supply of fresh, clean water is an essential for all classes 
of poultry. The watering arrangement should be so eonslrueted that 
the birds will not roost upon it and foul the water with their dro])- 
pings, and should be high enough to prevent litter being scratched 

into it. For chicks a vacuum foun- 
tain is desirable. The simplest 
form of such a fountain is simply 
a jar filled with water and inverted 
on a pan of water. As the chicks 
drink the water from the pan, air 
enters the jar and water flows out 
into the pan until the water level 
rises. 




Charcoal and condiments. — A 

supply of charcoal, sold on tlie mar- 
ket as granulated charcoal, should 
be kept before poultry as it acts as 
a regulator of the digestive tract. 
The use of such condiments as pep- 
per, ginger, and mustard is not to 
be recommended for poultry. 

Shelter. — There is no need of 
building an elaborate, expensive 
house for poultry, but to be healthy 
and profitable the farm flock needs 
dry, well-ventilated, well-lighted 
quarters, free from drafts. Fowls 
have no sweat glands and suffer 
from too close and warm quarters 
even more than do other animals. 
It is important that the house be easj^ to disinfect. Hence, all the 
fixtures — nests, perches, coops for broody hens, feed hoppers, etc, — 
should be simple and removable. A dropping board below the perches 
is desirable. So that they will have plenty of room for exercise, at 
least 4 square feet of floor space should be allowed each hen, and 6 to 
10 inches of roost space, depending on the size of the fowls. Venti- 
lating systems, such as the King, which depend on the diflferenee in 
weight between heated and cold air, do not work well in poultry houses, 
because there is too much cubic space per 100 lbs. live weight of fowls 
to warm the air enough. For ventilation, the poultryman must rely 
on having part of the windows protected only by muslin or by open 
slats, or left entirely open as in the "open front" house. The house 
should be well-bedded with straw which is renewed when it becomes 



Fig. 109. — Interior of Continu- 
ous Poultry House at 
Wisconsin Station 

This house is sunny, well-lighted, 
well ventilated, dry, and free from 
drafts. Note the shelf on whioh 
stand water crock and self feeders for 
grit and dry mash. (From Halpin, 
Wisconsin Station. ) 



FEEDING AND CARE OF POULTRY 383 

damp or filthy. Two or three times a year the house and all fixtures 
should be thoroly disinfected. 

The quarters should be located on well-drained soil, and preferably 
on a south slope, an east slope being next best. The site should have 
good air drainage and have ample range adjacent. Trees near the 
house provide summer shade and keep out the wind. Fowls also ap- 
preciate some low shrubbery nearby under which they may hide. 

Poultry houses are of three types: (1) The portable colony house 
with a single pen, (2) the long, continuous house of two or more pens, 
and (3) the large, single-unit house. The permanent house has cer- 
tain advantages for housing the flock in winter in the northern states, 
but on every farm where a good-sized flock is kept there should be 
at least one portable colony house. In this the young stock may be 
reared on the range and later the pullets be kept apart so that they 
will not be abused by the older fowls. 

Preparation of feed; dry and wet mash. — It has been i)ointed out 
previously that grinding grain does not increase its digestibility for 
poultry. Plowever, poultrymen have found it profitable to feed fowls 
about one-third of the ration ground in the form of a "mash," as 
this saves the birds considerable energy. The rest of the ration com- 
monly consists of grain, fed whole, except in the case of corn, which 
is often cracked coarsely. The grain is usually thrown on the straw 
used for bedding the house, where the fowls must scratch to secure it, 
thus getting ample exercise. Feeding the mash dry in self-feeding 
hoppers saves labor and gives the best results except for fattening 
fowls, which may be induced to eat more if the mash is moistened and 
fed in a trough. It is well, for variety, to give all fowls a wet mash 
three times a week, perhaps made of the same feeds that make up the 
dry mash but moistened with water or milk. For chickens a wet mash 
should be crumbly and not sticky. 

Green feeds. — Some green food is essential for the best results with 
poultry. The value of these feeds lies not so much in the nutrients 
they furnish as in the stimulating effect on the appetite and on the 
digestive tract. Where poultry have plenty of range, they will secure 
an abundance of green feed during the growing season. Successful 
poultrymen agree that provision should be made to continue the sup- 
ply of green feed thruout the winter. Where little or no range 
is available in spring and summer, soilage or pasture crops should 
be specially grown. 

Types of fowls. — Two classifications may be followed in grouping 
the various breeds of fowls: (1) the so-called "standard" classifica- 
tion of the American Poultry Association, which is based primarily 
upon the origin and distribution of the breeds, and (2) the utility 



384 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABIUDGED 

classification, which is based upon the suitability of the breeds for 
the production of eg<is and meat. According to the latter classifica- 
tion," the breeds are iiroui)etl as follows: (1) egg breeds; (2) meat 
breeds; (3) general-purpose breeds; (4) fancy breeds. 

The egg breeds, developed primarily for egg production, are small 
or medium-sized fowls, active, nervous and sprightly, slender in body, 
relatively long-legged, and early maturing. These breeds do best on 
am])le range and show the least tendency to sit of any type. They 
may be compared to the dairy cow, the racing horse, and the fine- 
wooled sheep. Breeds of this type belong chiefly to the Mediter- 
ranean class, so named because they originated in ^Mediterranean coun- 
tries. All laj^ eggs white in color. By far the most important breeds 
of this type in the United States are the Leghorns, followed by the 
IMinorcas and Anconas. 

The meat breeds are comparable to beef cattle, draft horses, mut- 
ton sheep, and lard hogs. The}' are relatively large in size, compact, 
thickly fleshed, wide of back and breast, and late maturing. The most 
important breeds of this type in the United States are the Brahmas and 
Cornish. 

The general-purpose breeds are the most common on American 
farms. JMidMay between the other two tj'pes in shape and disposition, 
they yield good carcasses for the table and are fair to excellent layers. 
At the same time they make good mothers. This type includes both 
the American and the English classes. The most important breeds of 
the former are the Plymouth Kocks, the Wyandottes and the Khode 
Island Reds; while the Orpingtons and Sussex are the most impor- 
tant representatives of the English class. The general-purpose 
breeds furnish by far the larger part of the poultry meat consumed in 
this countr3^ 

The fancy breeds include breeds and varieties kept mainly for ex- 
hibition purposes, such as the Polish, Bantams, Silkies, and Frizzles. 

Feeding laying* hens. — To secure a high egg production, it is essen- 
tial that a complete, well-balanced ration, containing grain, mash, ani- 
mal feed, green feed, shell, and grit, be fed. About 50 per ct. of the 
ration should be grain, 20 per ct. mash (not including animal feed 
sometimes mixed with the mash), 10 per ct. animal feed, 15 per ct. 
green feed, and 5 per ct. mineral feed. As in feeding other classes 
of stock, successful poultryraen differ quite widely in the exact routine 
followed in feeding. 

Commonly a short time after the birds are off the perch in the morn- 
ing a light feed of grain is scattered on the straw with which the pen 
is littered, and is well kicT^ed in, to make the birds work in securing 

Lewis, Productive Poultry Husbandry, p. 78. 



FEEDING AND CARE OF POULTRY 385 

a meal. A heavy feed of grain is given on the litter two or three hours 
before the fowls go to roost, so that they will go on the perch with 
full crops. The birds should be examined occasionally after they have 
gone to roost to see whetlier they have enough grain. At night it is 
better to feed a little more than will be eaten than not to feed enough. 
However, the morning feed must be light enough so that the grain will 
be entirely cleaned out of the litter before the afternoon feeding. 

The dry mash should be supplied in self-feeding hoppers, to which 
the fowls may be allowed free access at all times, except in the case of 
the meat breeds. As these tend to overeat, the hoppers should be kept 
closed during the forenoon. The green feed is commonly given at 
noon, as much being supplied as will be eaten in 20 to 30 minutes. 
For variety, it is well to feed a mash moistened with milk or water 
about three times a week in a trough. Fresh M^ater should be given in 
the morning, at noon, and also at the afternoon feeding, except in cold 
weather. 

In spring and summer plenty of range should be provided, if pos- 
sible, so that the fowls will not only have plenty of green feed but may 
also secure most of the animal feed thej^ need in the form of insects 
and worms. No special precaution need be taken then to enforce ex- 
ercise, for the fowls will be busy all day hunting for choice morsels. 
On good range, the amount of additional animal feed supplied may 
be reduced materially. When ample range is not available, some of 
the green feeds discussed in the next chapter should be specially grown 
for the flock. 

Good laying rations for winter. — As is shown in the following 
chapter, which discusses in detail all the important feeds used for 
poultry, the poultryman has chance for a wide selection in devising 
rations for his flock. From the available feeds he should choose those 
which will provide a well-balanced, satisfactory ration at least cost. 
Tho the particular combinations of feeds employed will differ widely 
in different sections of the country, the following rations, recom- 
mended by Halpin, will be suggestive, as they have all given good re- 
sults. 

Ration 1. — Feed in deep litter a mixture of 2 parts each by weiglit of corn and 
wheat and 1 part each of oats and barley (a light feed in the morning and a 
heavy one at night). 

Feed in hopper (all the time) a mixture of 100 Ihs. each of wlieat bran, wheat 
middlings, and ground corn; 50 lbs. each of dry malt sprouts and meat scraps; 
and 2 lbs. of salt. 

Feed in trough (.3 times a week) the same mixture, moistened with milk. 

Green feed — sprouted oats and mangels. 

Grit, oyster shell, and charcoal, supplied in small boxes or grit hoppers. 

Water — fresh and in abundance. 



386 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGP:D 

Ration 2. — Feed in deep Utter ji mixture ot 2 jtuits cacli of ouni and wheat 
anil 1 of liarlcy ( ii li^^lit ii'od in the inorninj: iuul a iiravy one at nii^ht). 

Feed in hopiter (all tlie time) cnisliod oats. 

Feed in trough (3 times a week) a moist masli of equal parts bran and corn 
meal. Salt slightly. 

Milk — sour milk or buttermilk to drink. 

Green feed; grit; oyster shell; charcoal; and uaier as in Tlalion 1. 

Ration 3. — Feed in deep litter a mi.xture of 2 jtarts oaili of corn and wheat 
and 1 of oats (a light feed in the morning and a lieavy one at night). 

Feed in hopper a mixture ot 100 ll)s. eadi of wlieat l)ran, wheat middlings, 
corn meal, and meat scrap, with 2 lbs. salt, (l.et tlie hens eat this when they 
wish.) 

Green feed; grit; oyster shell; charcoal; and uater as in Ration 1. 

Ration 4. — Feed in deep litter a mixture of 4 parts corn, 2 parts wheat and 
1 part oats (a light feed in the morning and a heavy one at night). 

Feed in hopper a mixture of 200 lbs. wheat bran, 100 lbs. ground corn, 100 ll)s. 
gluten feed, 75 lbs. oil meal, and 3 lbs. salt. 

Feed in trough (3 times a week) the same mixture, moistened with milk. 

Milk to drink, or add 50 lbs. meat scrap, or give meat scrap in small hopper, 
or give 3 ounces green bone to each hen per week. 

Green feed; grit; oyster shell ; and charcoal as in Fvation 1. 

Ration 5 (known as the Wisconsin simplicity ration). — Feed in deep Utter 
only corn (a light feed in the morning and a heavy one at night). 

ililJc — sour milk before the flock at all times, no water. 

Green feed; grit; oyster shells; and charcoal as in Ration 1. 

On extremely cold days heat ear corn on the back of the stove, break into small 
pieces, and feed on the cob early enough so that the hens have a chance to pick 
off all they want before they go to bed. 

The egg." — In several respects an egg is similar to a grain, such as 
a kernel of corn. In each there is a germ, from which the new life 
develops, and each contains food for the nourishment of this germ. In 
the grain the stored food material is starch, fat, and protein, while in 
tlie e^2, the nutriment is stored in the form of protein and fat. While 
the grain must ahsorh much water for germination, the egg contains 
sufficient for its own development. IMoreover, a much higher tempera- 
ture is required for the hatching of the egg than for the germination 
of a seed. 

An eg^ consists of five parts: (1) the shell ; (2) the shell membrane; 
(3) the albumin; (4) the yolk; and (5) the germ. The shell, consist- 
ing of 3 layers, makes np from 10 to 11 per ct. of the weight of the 
entire egg. It is composed chiefly of calcium carbonate (carbonate 
of lime). The shell membrane consists of two layers, the inner one 
being the thinner. At the large end of the egg these layers separate, 
forming the air sac. The albumin, or the white of the egg, which forms 
about 59 per ct. of the weight, contains about 14 per ct. dry matter, 
this being nearly all protein. When an egg is cooked, this albumin 

7 Largely adapted from Lippincott, Poultry Production, 1916. 



FEEDING AND CARE OF POULTRY 



387 



coagulates or hardens. The yolk, foniiiiii; al)()ut one-third of the egg, 
is eueloseil in a delicate membrane wliieli keeps it si)herical in shape. 
The yolk contains about 49 per ct. water, 18 per ct. protein, 32 per ct. 
fat, and 1.5 per ct. ash. The germ in the fresh-laid egg is a white 
speck about one-eighth of an inch in diameter on one side of the yolk. 

The eggs of the different breeds of chickens vary somewhat in size, 
the average hen's egg being 2.27 inches long and 1.72 inches in di- 
ameter, and weighing about 2 ounces. This brings the weight of a 
dozen eggs to 1.5 lbs. Eggs from pullets are generally smaller than 
those laid by mature hens. 

Selecting' the flock. ^ — Under any method of feeding and care, suc- 
cess with poultry is possible only when good stock is kept. Since pure- 
bred fowls or eggs from such fowls for hatching can be obtained at rea- 
sonable prices, the wise poultryman will start with good stock and, if 
]>ossible, keep improving it. To obtain the best chicks, eggs should be 
saved from strong, vigorous, reasonably mature stock. Only the best 
of each year's crop of pullets, those which mature early and are per- 
sistent layers, should be selected for breeding purposes. Such stock 
should be mated with vigorous males from a high-producing strain. 

It will pay everyone who 
raises poultry to spend a lit- 
tle time during the fall and 
winter in marking the laying 
hens and pullets, leg bands 
being commonlj- used for this 
purpose. Good layers are 
iirst oft* the roost in the morn- 
ing and the last to go to roost 
at night, are always busy 
looking for feed, and have 
full crops at night. They 
are bright-ej'ed, go about 
singing, and have full-sized 
red combs that are pliable and 
inclined to be slippery. Late 
moulting hens are really the 
best layers, but are discarded by many farmers, who have a mistaken 
belief that early moulting hens are the winter layers. Tho the close 
observer can usually distinguish between hens which are layers and 
those which are drones, the breeder who wishes to build up a high-pro- 

8 This and the following paragraphs on incubation and raising and feeding 
chicks are largely adapted from Halpin, Wis. Bui. 261. 




Fig. 110. — A Hen in a Trap Nest 

By using trap nests the poultryman can 
find out how many eggs each hen actually 
produces. (From Halpin, Wisconsin Sta- 
tion.) 



388 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

diicing flock should install trap nests and find out not only which hens 
are laying bnt also how many vgixs each lays. 

llalpin points out: "Jnst(>«(l of breediiiu from tlie best liens, poul- 
trymen often breed from the poorest, in many farm Hoeks there are 
hens that do not lay an e<i<>- durint^' the fall or winter. In the spring 
these hens get out-of-doors and begin to lay. They are not used to 
the nests in the house and- often hide their nests under a brush pile or 
in some other hiding place where they are not discovered. A hen of 
this type frequently lays but fifteen or twenty eggs a year. By 'steal- 
ing her nest she manages to furnish half of the chicks that are laised. 
Tills is equal to saving heifer calves from the poorest cows in the herd." 

Saving eggs for hatching. — To produce good eggs for hatching, the 
fiock should be liberally fed and encouraged to take plenty of exercise, 
but should not be forced by a stimulating ration. When an incubator 
is used, eggs are commonly kept until enough have accumulated to fill 
the machine. Eggs should be kept only as long as is necessary, for 
the fresher the egg, the quicker the hatch, and the larger the chick 
produced. When held in a cool room at a temperature of about 50 de- 
grees, eggs can be kept from 10 to 14 days without serious injury. It 
is best to keep the eggs on an egg tray or padded table top and to turn 
all of them each day. 

A sufticient number of vigorous males should be placed Avith the fe- 
males to ensure feitile eggs. With good strong males, from 10 to 15 
hens of the general purpose breeds and 20 to 30 of the egg breeds may 
be mated to each male. When the fowls are confined to a small yard, 
less can be mated than when they have free range. 

When enough eggs have been secured for hatching, the males should 
be kept separate from the flock, for males are not required for the 
maximum production of eggs and one of the largest losses in market 
eggs in spring and summer is caused by the development of the germ in 
fei-tile eggs. With infertile eggs this cannot occur. 

Incubation. — ]\Iany people hatch the chicks too late in the season. 
They then seldom reach maturity before cold weather, and hence the 
pullets produce few if any winter eggs. This also results in stunting 
tlie pullets, for it is difficult to grow them well in winter in an ordinary 
liouse, and in the spring they have not reached normal size when they 
begin to lay. If hens are used for hatching, they should be well cared 
for during the winter so they will want to sit early in the spring. The 
smaller breeds have so little tendency to sit that usually an incubator 
must be used to secure early chicks. 

Incubators are easy to operate, if the directions furnished with the 
machine are carefully followed. It is important to have the machine 
well regulated before putting in the eggs, to use good oil, and to keep 



FEEDING AND CAKE OF POULTRY 389 

the lamp and flues clean and the wick carefully trimmed so as to give 
a rounded flame. At hatching time the machine should be kept dark- 
ened so the chicks will sleep. The chicks are better if kept confined to 
the egg tray until dry or partially dry and then removed to the 
brooder, rather than letting them drop down into the nursery of the 
incubator. About 19 days are required for the incubation of eggs of 
the light breeds and 21 for those of the meat breeds. 

Hatching eggs with hens. — AVhen the eggs are hatched with hens, 
clean, roomy nests at least 14 inches square should be prepared in some 
building where the hens will not be disturbed while sitting. The nest 
should be placed over a layer of 3 or 4 inches of soil or sod and then lit- 
tered with soft straw, hay, or shavings, the corners being well packed 
with litter. After placing 2 or 3 nest eggs in each nest, the hens are 
moved to the nest .just at dark. The next day the^^ should be taken off 
and given feed and water. If they do not return to the nests in 20 to 30 
minutes they must be driven back or caught and fastened in the nest. 
As soon as the hens settle down they should be given the eggs. Until 
the eggs start to hatch, the hens should be taken off or allowed to 
come off each day. They should be fed all the whole corn they will 
eat, with an occasional allowance of mixed grain. Fresh water should 
be supplied daily and in hot weather it is wise to place a cup of water 
in each nest, as this saves much bowel trouble, which fre<iuently spoils 
many hatchings. The hens should be allowed to wallow in a dirt bath 
and should be kept free from lice and mites by dusting with a good in- 
sect powder as soon as they become accustomed to the nest and at the 
end of the first and second weeks. In case mites are discovered move 
the hen and eggs to a new nest and disinfect the infested nest. "Where 
possible, several hens should be set at one time. The infertile eggs 
should be removed toward the end of the first week, and, if there are 
many infertile ones, the fertile eggs can be given to a few of the hens 
and the rest be given fresh eggs. 

Brooding chicks with hens. — In rearing chicks with hens, the essen- 
tials are iew. The hen, quiet and motherly, should be placed in a light, 
portable coop which will allow the chicks free range but in which the 
hen can be confined if desired. The coop should protect the hen and 
the chicks from the weather and from enemies, and should be located 
on a grassy, shady range. Early in the season it is usually best to have 
board bottoms in the coop, but later in the season and in dry weather 
this is not necessary. When bottoms are used they should be kept 
clean and should be littered with chaft' or fresh earth. When no bot- . 
toms are used the coop should be moved at least once every other day. 
This will prevent killing the grass and will fertilize a larger area. 

As soon as the chicks are 10 days old, the mother hen may be turned 



390 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



loose toward night and allowed to run with the brood. If she does no 
damage, she can be given her liberty during the day when the chicks be- 
come accustomed to following her. On most farms the hens with their 
broods can be moved to some field where they can find a large part of 
their living. "When the hens wean their chicks, care should be taken 
to see that the orphans do not desert some of the houses and all crowd 
together. 

Many find it practicable to hatch most of their chicks in incubators 
rind brood them all with hens. Others buy chicks from a central hatch- 




FiG. 111. — Summer Hatched Chicks Need Shade 

Chicks have tender skins which are easily sunburned. Keep these inexpensive 
coops clean by moving them to a new spot every day. (From Halpin, Wisconsin 
Station.) 

ing station and rear them with hens. Broody hens are given a couple 
of chicks to test them out .just at dark, and early the next morning the 
best mothers are selected and given from 12 to 30 chicks. 

Artificial brooding. — While rearing chicks with hens is the proper 
method where only a few chicks are raised, the use of brooders is ad- 
visable where a large number must be cared for. Not only does this 
save labor but it permits raising the chicks past weaning entirely free 
from lice. Brooders are of two general types— indoor brooders and 
outdoor brooders. The former must be placed inside of some building 
for additional protection, while the latter may be used out-of-doors un- 



FEEDING AND CAKE OF POULTRY 391 

der ordinary climatic conditions. The essential parts consist of a 
heater (except in the case of tireless brooders for a few chicks), a warm- 
air compartment called the hover, a cool-air compartment, and a venti- 
lating system. In operating a brooder, the most important points are 
cleanliness, steady and abundant heat under proper control, and op- 
portunity for the chicks to get nearer the heat when they are cold and 
room to get away from it when they are too warm. Unless the heat 
is steady, the chicks may either be overheated or chilled at night be- 
fore they awake and adjust their position nearer or farther away from 
the source of heat. 

The brooder should be started at least 24 hours before it is needed 
for the chicks, and the temperature carefully regulated. After the 
chicks are transferred to the brooder, most persons will have better 
results if they do not depend on the thermometer in regulating the 
heat, but watch the chicks instead. Give enough heat so that they do 
not crowd to the warm part of the hover but spread out in the cooler 
part with their heads sticking out from under the curtain at night, 
or so that a chick that walks to the hottest part of the brooder stays 
there only a short time. To prepare the chicks for removal to the 
range, they must be hardened off gradually by reducing the tempera- 
ture of the brooder • after the second week. Heat is needed for 
about 6 weeks in the early spring in the northern states and for only 
3 to 4 weeks later in the season. When heat is finally dispensed with 
a "cold frame" may be substituted for the hover. This is simply a 
box with a slitted curtain of soft, warm cloth on one side and a cover 
of simila-r cloth which is so loose that it sags down in the center and 
rests on the chicks' backs when they go into the frame to sleep or get 
warm. 

Feeding the chicks. — Just before hatching, the yolk of the e^g, 
which has hitherto not been used for food by the chick, is drawn into 
the body and supplies it with food for several hours after hatching. 
Due to this, it is advisable not to give chicks any solid food for some 
time after they are hatched — with incubator chicks at least 48 hours. 
After the first few days, the chicks must be fed liberally for they grow 
■with great rapidity. Several methods may be followed with equal suc- 
cess in feeding chicks. The following, given by Halpin, will be sug- 
gestive : 

First method. — Give the chicks sour milk in a small dish when they are 24 
hours old. Keep this before them until they are about 72 hours old, when they 
are given good, sweet chick feed in a litter of chopped clover or alfalfa. This 
chick feed may l)e a mixture of finely cracked corn, cracked wheat, steel-cut 
oatmeal, and kafir. or such a mixture as 2 parts of finely cracked corn, 2 parts 
of cracked wheat, and 1 part of steel-cut oats. Tlie chick feed is scattered over 



3f)2 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABHIDGED 

11h' litter at least 5 times a clay, pains being taken to have tlie cliicks out from 
under tiie hover to see the leed when it falls. The next day and thereatter they 
are yiven a very light feed of moist mash made up of equal parts of corn meal, 
rolled oats, bran, and middlings. This is moistened with sour milk. Any mash 
that is not eaten after 15 or 20 minutes is removed. This method of feeding is 
continued until the chicks are 3 weeks old, when the rolled oats are gradually 
dropped from the ration. At about this time whole wheat and medium cracked 
corn are added to the chick feed and are increased as rapidly as the chicks learn 
to eat it. As soon as they show a willingness to eat the coarser feed the fine 
feed is omitted. When the chicks are 2 weeks old, a small hopper is filled with 
a mash of 2 parts ground corn, 2 of bran and 1 of middlings. Another hopper 
containing meat scrap of a good grade is also placed in the pen. The chicks are 
given free access to these feeds. Green feed, grit, charcoal, and. water should 
always be before them. 

Second method. — Stale bread crumbs moistened with sour milk are fed after 
the chicks are 48 hours old. Squeeze bread nearly dry. Give sour milk or water 
to drink. After the first 5 days give a moist mash of bran and ground corn 
with chojiped onions or other green feed. Feed wheat screenings and cracked 
corn after the first week. Early in the season stir this into a litter of clover 
chafT. 

Third method. — Feed Johnny cake for the first 10 days. This is made as 
follows: ]\lix 1 pint of finely ground corn, 1 teacupful wheat bran, 1 teaspoon- 
ful ground meat, 1 teaspoonful soda, and 1 teacupful sour milk, and bake 1 hour. 
Feed 4 times a day. Stir a little chick feed or other fine grain into the litter. 
Provide green feed, grit, water, and charcoal. 

Fourth method. — Feed chick feed in litter 5 times a day for the first 10 days; 
after that feed chick feed .3 times a day. Give in addition a moist mash made 
of equal ])arts of bran, ground corn, and ground barley (with coarse hulls sifted 
out) twice daily, (live milk, green feed, grit, water, and charcoal as recom- 
mended in first method. 

When the chicks have ample range, they can often pick up in the 
form of worms and insects practically all of the animal feed that is nec- 
essary. However, where chicks are raised on a large scale, it always 
pays to supply additional animal matter. For this purpose, skim 
milk and buttermilk are the best, if they can be obtained. Other 
forms of animal feed are discussed in the following chapter. Ground 
bone, which should be fed in a hopper, supplies mineral elements that 
help the chick to grow a good, strong frame. Fresh, finely ground 
green bone can also be supplied, but care should be taken to see that 
it is fresh and sweet, and is fed in small quantities. 

From the start the chick should have access to finely crushed rock, 
coarse sand, fine gravel, or specially prepared commercial grit. The 
"chick size" white limestone is especially valuable. Fine charcoal 
should also be supplied whenever possible. Both the grit and the char- 
coal may be mixed with the scratch feed and fed in small quantities, 
or each may be put into a separate compartment of a hopper after 
the first few days. 

Pullets and cockerels. — Pullets should be grown in a movable colony 



FEEDING AND CARE OF POULTRY 



393 



house on the open range wherever possible. When given free range 
they may be allowed to help themselves to grain and mash in self- 
feeding hoppers. The grain feed may consist of equal parts of wheat 
and cracked corn, and the mash of equal parts of wheat bran, 
wheat middlings, and corn meal. If insects are not abundant 
meat scrap or milk should be given. Green feed should be supplied 
in case of drought. Water, grit, charcoal, and oyster shell should be 
accessible at all times. 

The care of cockerels for the breeding flock does not differ from 
that for pullets. Those not to be kept for breeding may be sold while 
still on the range or may be fattened in crates. Successful crate fat- 




Profitable Duck Ranch 



Sevoral poultrymcn have made a pronounced success of raising ducks on a 
large scale. (From Wisconsin Station.) 

tening demands young and vigorous stock kept closely confined in clorui 
crates or coops. The usual concentrate mixture consists of about 60 ll)s. 
corn meal and 40 lbs. red dog flour or flour wheat middlings. Ocit Hour 
or barley flour are sometimes added. This feed is mixed with butter- 
milk at the rate of 1 quart of buttermilk to 1 lb. of dry feed. The 
fowls are given just a trifle less feed than they will clean up. Feed- 
ing is carried on for about 14 days and gains of about 35 per et. in 
live weight are common. 

Ducks. — The most profitable ducks are marketed at about 10 weeks 
of age when they weigh from 5 to 6 lbs. each. Young ducks should 
always be fed on ground feed, animal feed, green feed, and grit mixed 



394 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

into a crumbly mash. They may be started on 4 parts wheat bran, 
1 part wheat middlings, and 1 part corn meal, with 5 per ct. grit 
added. From 4 to 6 days of age up to 4 or 5 weeks of age add 5 per 
ct. of meat scrap and plenty of green feed. From this time up to 
six weeks reduce the proportion of wheat bran to 3 parts. Then feed 
equal parts of wheat bran and corn meal, with 10 per ct. of meat scrap, 
15 per ct. of middlings, and 10 per ct. of green feed. After 8 
weeks of age, corn meal should form half the ration. The balance may 
be equal parts bran and middlings with 10 per ct. of the entire ration 
consisting of meat scrap, 3 per ct. of grit, and about 5 per ct. of 
green feed. At ten weeks they should be ready for market. 

Old ducks during the laj'ing season may be fed an ordinary 
poultry mash, with plenty of green feed and with 10 per ct. of the 
ration consisting of meat scrap. When not laying give good pasture 
and not over 5 per ct. of meat scrap in their mash. 

Geese. — Breeding geese should have good pasture during the sum- 
mer and clover hay, oats, and bran in winter. Young goslings are 
best started on bread and milk with plenty of green feed. After 2 
weeks feed a light feed twice a day of equal i)arts wheat bran and 
corn meal moistened with milk. Always supply plenty of green stuff. 
When pasture is abundant they will need no other feed after 3 or .4 
weeks of age. 

Turkeys. — Young turkeys should be fed sparingly a mixture of 
finely chopped hard boiled eggs, green stuff, and rolled oats. Feed 
only what the poults will eat in about five minutes. Fine, sweet chick 
feed follows in a few days. Feed sparingly and allow the poults 
to "pick" as much of their living as possible on the range. Over- 
feeding kills many each year. Breeding tvirke^^s should be fed a 
mixture of grains and occasionally be given some green feed during 
the winter. 

Hints on feeding poultry. — For good production, either of meat or 
of eggs, animals must consume a large amount of feed. Hence, feeds 
must be provided which are palatable and attractive. The art of 
feeding lies in stimulating the appetite of the flock so that the 
birds will eat heartily; yet over feeding must be avoided, for this 
causes loss of appetite and makes the birds lazy. The skilled feeder 
seeks to feed growing, laying, or fattening poultry just a little less 
than they would like to eat. It might appear that feeding young 
stock on the range grain in hoppers or allowing laying hens to eat 
dry mash in hoppers at all times is contrary to this rule. However, 
as Lippincott points out,^ in both these cases the amount of the most 
palatable kind of feed is limited. On range the chicks are so eager 

« Lippincott, Poultry Production, 1916, p. 366. 



FEEDING AND CAKE OF POULTRY 395 

to secure bugs and worms that they do not overeat of the hopper- 
fed grain. The laying hens prefer the scratching grain fed in the 
litter to the finely ground dry mash fed in the hopper, and usually 
eat only enough of the latter to piece out the allowance of scratch- 
ing feed. 

Feeding and watering should always be done at regular times for 
all classes of poultr3\ At the customary feeding hour the birds will 
congregate at the place of feeding, waiting for the appearance of the 
feeder. If feeding time is long delayed, they become irritated and 
tend to eat less, which cuts down production. 

Supplying a considerable variet}^ of feeds stimulates the appetite 
and encourages the consumption of a large amount of feed. At least 
two grains should preferably be given in the scratch feed and three 
different feeds in the mash, in addition to green feed, and such animal 
feed as meat scrap or milk. All feeds should be sound and wholesome, 
as stale, moldy feeds often cause loss of appetite, diarrhea, and other 
digestive disorders. Also, feeds should always be given in clean 
litter, troughs, and hoppers. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How dooo tlic lien compare in efficiency of food production with other live 
stock ? 

2. Tell liow the digestive system of poultry differs from tliat of other farm 
animals. 

3. Discuss the nutrient requirements of poultry. 

4. What forms of mineral matter are fed to poultry and why? 

5. Discuss the requirements of poultry for animal food, salt, water, and char- 
coal. 

6. Describe the kind of poultry house you would build. 

7. ^Yhy is mash commonly fed to poultry? 

8. What is the value of green feed for poultry? 

9. Describe the various types of fowls. 

10. Tell how you would feed laying hens. 

11. Give an example of a good laying ration. 

12. Describe the structure of the egg. 

13. What points are of special importance in selecting the flock? 

14. Discuss (a) saving eggs for hatching; (b) incubation; (c) hatching eggs 
with hens; (d) brooding chicks with hens; and (e) artificial brooding. 

15. How would you feed (a) chicks; (b) pullets; (c) fattening cockerels? 
10. Tell about the feeding (a) of young ducks; (b) laying du<ks; (c) geese; 

(d) turkeys. 



CHAPTER XXX 

FEEDS FOR POULTRY 
I. Carbonaceous Concentrates 

Because of the nature of their digestive tract, poultry can utilize 
but little roughage, so important a part of the rations for horses, 
cattle, and sheep. Indeed, poultry make even less use of feeds high 
in fiber than do swine. The common cereals and their by-products are 
usually bulky enough for poultry, and roughages have small place 
in their rations, except when fed green for succulence. Since the 
cereals are all rather low in protein, they should be supplemented by 
protein-rich feeds, such as meat scrap, skim milk or buttermilk, wheat 
bran, linseed meal, etc. 

Indian corn. — Corn is the chief grain fed to poultry in most parts 
of this country, principally because they prefer it to all other cereals, 
because it is rich in starch and fat, and because it is commonly the 
cheapest source of digestible nutrients among the grains, from the corn 
belt eastward. Since it is low in protein and mineral matter and is 
also very concentrated, corn should not be fed alone, but should be 
supplemented by bulkier feeds and those rich in the nutrients it lacks. 
The low egg production of many farm flocks is undoubtedly often due 
to the exclusive feeding of corn. Properly combined with feeds rich 
in protein and mineral matter, especially calcium and phosphorus, and 
fed with some bulky feed, such as green food or cut clover, corn 
gives excellent results. Yellow corn produces darker colored yolks and 
yellower body fat than white corn or the other cereals. 

Cracking or grinding corn does not increase its digestibility for 
jioultry, but many crack it to force the birds to take more exercise in 
picking up a full meal. Except for chicks, the grain is coarsely 
cracked. Corn meal is the foundation of most poultry mashes. 

Wheat; wheat screenings. — Wheat, commonly considered the best 
single grain for poultry, is preferred bj^ them to all other grain ex- 
cept corn. Because of its high cost, it is not usually economical to 
feed wheat as the chief grain, but a limited amount is an excellent 
addition to the ration. Tho carrying more protein than corn, it should 
be supplemented by protein-rich feeds. Soft wheat is more palatable 
to poultry than that having hard kernels. Shrunken wheat, which 's 



FEEDS FOR POULTRY 



397 



unfit for flour making and is hence cheaper, is richer in protein and 
fully as valuable for feeding as plump wheat. 

Wheat screenings, when of good (luality and not nnisty or smutted, 
are satisfactory for poultry. The value depends on the proportion of 
shrunken wheat and weed seeds to worthless traslu 

Oats. — Due to the large amount of fiber in the hulls, oats rank 










Fig. 113. — Poultry Raising Fits into Intensive Agriculture 

The truck gardener or the fruitgrower can often increase his profits by raising 
poultry. The illustration shows chickens ranging on land planted to corn and 
young fruit trees. (From Indiana Station.) 

below corn or wheat for supplying nutrients. They are also usually 
costly compared with corn and are not well relished by poultry. 
However, mixed with other concentrates, they are useful in giving bulk 
to the ration and adding variety. Plump, heav^^ oats should be used 
for poultry as the hulls are almost worthless for them. Whole oats 
or clipped oats are often fed as part of the scratch feed, rolled oats 
and pin-head oat meal are favorite feeds for baby chicks, and hulled 
oats are esteemed for older chicks. As pointed out later in this chap- 
ter, sprouted oats are an excellent succulent feed. 

Barley. — Tho less palatable than corn or wheat, barley is an ex- 
cellent grain for poultry, being nearly equal to these grains in feeding 
value. In sections of the West it is the most conmicu grain for poul- 
try. 



398 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

The sorghums ; millet. — Kafir is well liked by poultry and is nearly 
ccjual in value to corn or wheat. It is ns(Ml in many propricljiry poul- 
try feeds. ]\lUo should be ecpial or slightly- superior to Ualir. fSeed 
from sweet sorghum and broom corn is also satisfactory for poultry. 
Millet seed is often used as a feed for young chicks. However, as it 
is higher in fiber than wheat or corn, it is less valuable than these 
grains. It may be injurious when fed in large amounts. 

Other carbonaceous feeds. — Rye is fed but little to poultry in 
America, as the other cereals are much more palatable. 

Rice is not commonh- fed to poultry except when off grade. Broken 
rice, resulting from the manufacture of table rice, is used in some 
commercial chick feeds. 

Buckwheat is usually relished by poultry and forms a welcome addi- 
tion to the scratch feed. It is usually too high in price to feed except 
in districts where it is grown. 

Emmer is well liked by poultry and resembles oats in feeding value. 

Sometimes salvage grain may be .secured at a price which makes its 
use economical. 

Ilominy feed, tho little used for poultry', is worth fully as much as 
corn meal. 

Dry, stale Tjread, which can often be secured cheaply from bak- 
eries, gives good results as part of the mash. Dried bread crumbs 
or cracker crumbs soaked in milk are often fed to young chicks. 

II. Protein-rich Concentrates 

Meat scrap. — As has been pointed out in the preceding chapter, 
feeds of animal origin are of especial importance for poultry. In 
summer poultry having abundant range can gather a considerable 
amount of animal feed in the form of insects and worms, thus reducing 
the amount that need be supplied. Of animal feeds, the most widely 
used is meat scrap, tho in dairy districts it is wisel}^ being replaced 
by skim milk and buttermilk. In purchasing meat scrap, special at- 
tention should be paid to the guaranteed amount of protein, for the 
high-grade brands, carrying 55 to 60 per ct. of protein or over, are 
usually much more economical than the lower grades, which usually 
cost but a few dollars per ton less. Meat scrap should form from 
5 to 25 per ct. of the dry mash, depending on the amount of protein 
supplied in the other ingredients of the mash and in the scratching 
grain. Of course, less need be supplied poultry which have ample 
range in summer. Poultry do not relish dried blood or tankage. 

Fresh meat. — When fresh meat or meat scraps can be secured 
cheaply, they are even more satisfactory than dried meat scrap, on 



FEEDS Foil POULTRY 



399 



account of their greater palatability. It should be remembered that 
fresli lean meat contains but about 40 per et. as much protein as 
high-grade dried meat scrap, and consequently more must be used to 
balance the ration. 

Skim milk; buttermilk; whey. — These dairy by-products are fully 
as satisfactory protein-rich feeds as dried meat scrap. They may be 
jiiven as a drink or may be used to mix with the mash, the latter 
being a common practice in the commercial fattening of poultry. 
Skim milk or buttermilk is especially valuable for young chicks. 
Sour skim milk is preferred to sweet for poultry. 

Whey, tho of much less value than skim milk or buttermilk, may be 
used with good results as a drink or for moistening mashes. In using 
whey, it should be remembered that it is only fairly rich in protein. 




Pig. 114. — ^MiLK Is an Ideal Feed for Growing Chicks 

(1) Chicks, G weeks old, fed wheat and green clover; (2) chicks, same age, fed 
cracked corn, green clover, and milk; (3) chicks, same age, fed cracked corn and 
green clover. The chicks fed milk gained about 4 times as much as Lot I or 
Lot III. None of them died, while the death rate in Lot I was 16 per ct. and in 
Lot III 40 per et. (From Halpin, Wisconsin Station.) 

Fish scrap; fresh fish.— A good grade of fish scrap, from which 
most of the oil has been expressed, is a satisfactory substitute for meat 
scrap. The kind of fish scrap usually sold for fertilizer should not be 
employed. Fresh fish are frecpiently fed in winter but care should 
be taken to see that all tainted or spoiled meat is rejected, lest the 
fowls be made sick or bad-flavored eggs result. 

Milk albumin.— This is a trade name for a by-product obtained in 
the manufacture of milk sugar from skim milk. In the process the 
casein is precipitated by lime and the resulting cake, composed of 
casein and lime, is ground and sold as milk albumin. It is a good 
source of protein and is palatable to poultry, but is usually high in 
price. 

Green cut bone. — Many poultrymen secure from meat shops fresh 
bones with adhering meat, grind them in bone cutters, and feed while 



400 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

still fresh. Green cut bone of good (|uality is a highly satisfactory 
animal feed, but its use is limited, as it will keep but a short time, 
and it is often difficult to secure a supply regularly. When neces- 
sary to hold fresh ground bone even for a comparatively few hours 
it should be spread out thinly. A paper sack full of fresh ground 
green bone will fre(iuently spoil over night, even in a cold room. 
If spread out thinly it can be kept in a warmer room, where there is 
no danger of freezing. 

Wheat by-products. — Wheat bran forms part of most mashes for 
poultry, adding bulk to a mixture of heavier concentrates. Even 
when bran is high in price, compared with other feeds, the use of a 
limited amount may be advisable on account of its slightly laxative 
and cooling effect. Middlinfjs are used in most poultry mashes. 

Linseed meal. — Because of its beneficial effect on the digestive sys- 
tem and its laxative action, linseed meal is a valuable feed for poultry, 
but should not form over 10 per ct. of the ration. It is undesirable 
for use in wet mashes because of its gummj^ nature and is un[)alatable 
when fed in large amounts. Old-process linseed meal is especially 
helpful during the moulting season and in fitting birds for shows, as 
it hastens the growth of feathers and gives them luster. 

Cottonseed meal. — Contradictory results have been secured in trials 
where cottonseed meal has been fed to poultry. In some cases it has 
been substituted successfully for dried meat scrap, but in others the 
results have been much less satisfactory. As a result, poultrymen 
at present do not favor this concentrate. 

Sunflower seeds. — Sunflower seeds, rich in oil and high in protein, 
are often used in fitting poultry for shows and as a conditioner during 
the moulting season, since they hasten the growth of feathers and give 
luster, the same as does linseed meal. They are frequently grown for 
shade in poultry yards, the heads being fed to the flock. Except when 
thus used they are rarely economical for general use in balancing the 
ration. 

Miscellaneous protein-rich concentrates. — Wet brewers' grains are 
excellent for poultry, if fed fresh, for they are palatable and succulent. 

Dried brewers' grains are often economical to use as part of the 
mash. Gluten feed, palatable and satisfactory for poultry, is com- 
monly an economical protein-rich feed, due to its richness in protein 
and its high digestibility. 

Buckwheat middlings and huclivheat bran of good grade may be 
used as a substitute for wheat bran in mashes. Low-grade bran, con- 
taining much hulls, should not be fed to poultry. 

Field peas, soybeans, and coivpeas are all satisfactory for poultry, 
but are not commonly fed because they are usually high in price. 



FEEDS FOK POULTRY 401 

Meal from tliese protein-rich seeds may be used as part of the mash 
to balance the ration. 



III. Succulent Feeds and Roughages 

Mangels. — For winter feeding, mangels are one of tlie best succulent 
feeds, due to the ease of growth and large yield, and to the fact that 
they keep Avell during the winter. A good method of feeding is to 
split the beets lengthwise and stick the halves on nails driven in the 
walls of the pen, about 18 inches from the floor, and then allow the 
fowls to pick at them. 

Cabbage. — Cabbage is highly relished by poultry and is probably the 
best green feed for fall and early winter use. Experiments at the 
Wisconsin Station ^ seem to give cabbage first place among the green 
feeds, especially while the hens are moulting. The cabbage should 
bt fastened to a wire clamp on a string suspended from the ceiling, 
and should be about 18 inches above the floor, so that the birds may 
reach it easily. 

Sprouted oats. — The sprouting of oats to furnish succulent feed 
during the winter is increasing in popularity among poultrymen. 
Tho oats may be sprouted in several ways, the following is the 
method usually employed: The oats are placed in a pail or tub, 
which is filled with water at a temperature of not over 100° F., to 
which are added 10 drops of formalin for each 10 quarts.- The oats 
are allowed to soak over night in a warm room and next morning they 
are spread to a depth of one inch on a tray. This is commonly placed 
in a rack, made to hold at least 7 trays. The oats are kept in a 
room in which the temperature is not lower than 60° F., and are 
sprinkled with warm water once or twice a day. In 7 to 10 days the 
top sprouts will be 2 to 3 inches long and the oats ready for use. 
They are usually fed in broad, flat troughs, no more being given than 
the birds will clean up within half an hour. 

Other succulent feeds for winter. — Sugar beets are satisfactory for 
poultry but are usually more expensive per poiuid of dry matter 
contained than are mangels. Turnips and rutabagas may be fed to 
poultry but should be used in moderation or they will impart a bad 
flavor to the eggs. They are especially suited for fall feeding, as 
they do not keep as Avell as mangels. 

Silage of good ([uality may be fed to poultry with good results, but 
nearly all poultrymen prefer some other form of succulence. In feed- 
ing corn silage care should be taken to choose the leafy part rather 

1 Halpin, Information to the authors. 

2 Lewis, Productive Poultry Husbandry, 1!»14, p. 18!). 



402 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

than that which is largely corn. Silage shonld be fed in small 
(|naiilities until tlie fh)ck becomes accustomed to it. 

Green feeds for spring and summer. — Vov early si)ring rye pasture 
is an excellent green feed. To prevent scours the fowls should not be 
allowed to eat a large amount of the r^-e until they become accustomed 
to it. Green alfalfa and green clover furnish excellent grazing for 
poultry or may be cut as soilage and fed to birds confined to bare lots. 
Rape, planted early, may be pastured thruout the season, or will 
yield several cuttings, if not cut below the crown. Lettuce is excellent 
for broiler chicks in early spring before other green feed is available. 
Onion tops and o)iions are relished by poultry when fed in small 
amounts, and give variety to the ration. Too large amounts fed to 
laying hens will taint the eggs. Sliced onions are the best of all 
green feeds for very small chicks but are not usually fed in large 
quantities because of the high cost. 

Legume hay. — The only dry rougliage of any value for poultry is 
cut or ground legume ha}-. This is often used as part of the dry 
mash to increase its bulk, up to one-fourth of the mash consisting 
of the legume hay. Alfalfa hay is used somewhat more commonl;^ than 
clover hay, tho there is little ditfereuce in their value. Poultry, how- 
ever, prefer clover to alfalfa. Cut alfalfa or clover ha}-, when 
steamed, may be used as a temporary substitute for succulent feed. 
On the farm, the leaves which shatter from legume hay in feeding to 
other stock should be saved for the poultry. Alfalfa or clover meal 
is not better than the finely cut hay. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What precautions should be used in feeding corn to poultry? 

2. What grain is commonly considered the best single grain for poultry? 
Discuss its use. 

3. How do oats and barlej* compare with corn and ^^hoat for poultry? 

4. What is the value for poultry of the sorghums, millet, rye, rice, buckwheat, 
emmer, hominy feed, and stale bread? 

5. Discuss the value of the most widely used animal feed. 

6. Tell what you can about G other animal feeds used for poultry. 

7. What is the use in poultry feeding of wheat bran, wheat middlings, linseed 
meal, cottonseed meal, and sunllower seeds? 

8. Discuss the value of the 3 best succulent feeds for winter feeding. 

9. What other succulent feeds are used in flocks in jour vicinity in winter 
and in the growing season ? 

10. How is legume hay used in poultry feeding? 



APPENDIX 

Table I. Average Composition of American Feeding Stuffs 

The following averages, showing the com^josition of the most important 
American feeding stufls, are taken from the much more extensive table in tlie 
unabridged edition of Feeds and feeding. This table and Appendix Tables 11 
and 111 are based upon an exhaustive compilation, made by the authors, of the 
analyses and digestion coefficients reported by the State Experiment Stations 
and the United States Department of Agriculture. The completeness and ac- 
curacy of the data here presented is evident from the fact that merely the 
preparation of the unabridged tables required the time of trained assistants 
equivalent to one person working steadily for tliree years, in addition to tlie 
supervision of tlie authors. The student desiring to know the composition and 
digestibility of feeding stuffs not given in these tables is referred to the ex- 
haustive tables in the unabridged Feeds and Feeding. 

This table and Appendix Tables 11 and III are fully protected by copyright. 



Feeding stuff 



Concentrates 
Grains and seeds 

Barley 

Hroom corn seed 

Buckwheat 

Corn, dent 

Corn, Hint 

Corn, soft 

Corn, sweet, mature 

Corn and cob meal 

Corn and oat feed 

Corn and oat feed, low grade . . 

Cotton seed 

Cowpea 

Durra grain 

Emmer ( spelt ) 

Feterita grain 

Flax seed 

Horse bean 

Kafir grain 

Kafir-head chops 

Kaoliang grain 

Hog, or broom corn, millet seed 

Milo grain 

Mi lo head chops 

Oats 



Water 


Ash 


Crude 
protein 


Carboliydrates 


Fat 


No of 


Fiber 


Ntiee 
extract 


anal- 
yses 


Perct. 


Perct. 


Per ct 


Perct 


Perct 


Per tt 




9.3 


2.7 


11.5 


4.6 


69.8 


2.1 


298 


11.8 


29 


10.2 


8.2 


63.5 


34 


4 


12,1 


2.1 


10.8 


10.3 


62.2 


2.5 


18 


10.5 


1.5 


10.1 


2.0 


70.9 


5,0 


440 


12.2 


1.5 


10.4 


1.5 


69.4 


5.0 


52 


30.6 


1.0 


7.4 


1.2 


56.0 


3.8 


154 


n.3 


1.8 


11 5 


2.3 


67.2 


79 


07 


10.4 


1.5 


8.5 


7.9 


676 


4.1 




11.4 


2.8 


96 


7.4 


65.0 


3 8 


1,789 


0.5 


4.6 


8.9 


13.7 


59.7 


3 6 


38() 


9.4 


46 


19,5 


22.6 


24 9 


19 


38 


11.6 


3.4 


23.6 


4.1 


55.8 


15 


■ 30 


0.9 


2.0 


10.1 


1.7 


72.8 


3 5 


5 


8.7 


3.7 


11.9 


10.1 


63.7 


1.9 


37 


10.8 


1.5 


11.5 


1.2 


71.7 


3 3 


1 


9.2 


4.3 


22.6 


7.1 


23,2 


33.7 


50 


126 


3.8 


26.2 


7.1 


49.4 


0.9 


2 


118 


1.7 


11.1 


2.3 


70.1 


3.0 


135 


12 5 


28 


9.7 


64 


65,9 


27 


21 


9.9 


1.9 


10.5 


1.5 


71,9 


4.3 


12 


9.1 


3.3 


11.8 


7.8 


64.7 


3 3 


52 


107 


2.8 


107 


24 


70.5 


2.0 


125 


10.3 


3.1 


100 


5 9 


68.1 


26 


40 


9.2 


3 5 


12.4 


10.0 


59.6 


44 


490 



403 



404 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



Table I. Averagic Composition' of Americax Feeding Stuffs — continued. 



Fccdiufj stuff 



COXCKN TRATES — COn 

Grains oiul seeds — con. 

Peanut, with hull . . 

Pea, Held 

Rice, rough 

l{ye 

Sliallu grain 

Sorgiium grain 

Soybean 

Velvet bean, seed 

Velvet bean, seed and i)od 

Wheat, all analyses 

VViieat, spring 

Wheat, winter 

By-products of factories, etc. 

Beet pulp, dried 

Beet pulp, molasses- 

Beet pulp, wet 

Brewers' grains, dried 

Brewers' grains, wet 

Buckwheat bran, high grade 

Buckwheat feed, good grade 

Buckwheat feed, low grade 

Buckwheat hulls 

Buckwheat middlings 

Cocoanut meal, low in fat 

Corn bran 

Corn cob 

Cold-pressed cottonseed cake 

Cottonseed meal, choice 

Cottonseed meal, prime 

Cottonseed meal, good 

Cottonseed feed 

Cottonseed hulls 

Distillers' grains, dried, from corn 
Distillers' grains, dried, from rye 

Distillers' grains, wet 

Fla.\ feed 

Flax screenings 

Germ oil meal 

Gluten feed 

Gluten meal 

Hominy feed 

Linseed meal, new process 

Linseed meal, old process 

Malt sprouts 

Molasses, beet 

Molasses, cane, or blackstrap . . . . 



Wait- 1 



1\t ct. 

6.5 
!t.2 
9.G 
9.4 
97 
12,7 

9.<t 
11.7 
12. .'5 
10 2 
10. 1 
10.9 



S.2 
7.0 
90.7 
7.5 
75.9 
11.2 
11.8 

119 

i().;i 

12.0 

9.0 

10.0 

10.0 

7.9 

7.5 
7.8 
7.9 
8.3 
97 
6(( 
7.2 

77.4 
9.4 

8.(5 
8.9 
8.7 
9 1 

10.1 

9.0 

9.1 

7.6 

25.3 

25.8 



A.sh 



Per ft. 

4,1 
3.4 
49 
2.0 
10 
19 

5 3 
2.0 
4.0 
1.9 
20 
1.8 



3.5 
5.<! 
0,4 
3 5 
1.0 
4.2 
4.4 

3.2 
2.1 
4.8 
4.9 
2.4 
1.5 
4.2 

0.2 
0,6 
64 
49 

2.7 
26 
39 

06 
7.3 
8.2 
27 
2 1 
1,1 

2,0 
5,0 
54 
0.1 
5.2 
0.4 



Crude 
protein 



Carbohvdrate> 



Fiber 



Per ct 

20.4 
22 9 

7.6 
11.8 
12.5 

9.2 

30.5 
20.8 
17.1 
12.4 
12.5 
11.7 



8.9 

9.5 

0.9 

265 

5.7 

22.3 

19.3 

13.3 
44 

28 3 

20.9 
9.7 
2.0 

26.1 

44.1 
39.8 
37 6 
24 5 
46 
30 7 
23.1 

45 
106 
15,4 
226 
25.4 
35 5 

10 6 
36.9 
33 9 
26,4 
3,5 
3,1 



N free 
extract 



Peret. 

16.4 
56 
9 3 
1.8 
1.7 
2.0 

4 3 
7.5 
143 
2.2 
2.7 
2.0 



18,9 

15.9 
2.1 

14 
3.0 
7 1 

17.9 



43.7 
4.8 

11.2 
9.8 

318 

24.0 

8.1 
10.1 
115 
21 4 
438 
11 6 
10.9 

2.8 
11.2 
15.5 
9 
7.1 
2.1 

4.4 

8.7 

8.4 

12.6 



Peret 

16.4 
57.8 
66.7 
73.2 
71 1 
70.8 

26.5 
51 
47.7 
712 
70,5 
71.0 



59 
00.7 
5.7 
41.0 
12.1 
49.4 
41.4 

39.7 
38 5 
42 7 
45.3 
02.4 
54,3 
30.1 

25 
27.4 
28.4 
34 
37 3 
3t;.3 
47.1 

13.1 
41.3 
40.5 
40.0 
52.9 
47.5 

64 3 
36.3 
35.7 
45.6 
66 
64.7 



I' at 



Peret 

36.2 
1.1 
1.9 
1.8 
3,4 
3 4 

17.5 
04 
4.6 
2.1 
22 
2.0 



0.9 
0.7 
02 
09 
1.7 
5.8 
5.2 

3.4 
1.0 

7.4 
8.1 
5.7 
0.4 

7.7 

9.1 
8.3 
8.2 
6.3 
1.9 
12.2 
7.8 

1.6 

14.2 

11.8 

10.8 

3.8 

4.7 

8.0 
2.9 
7 5 
1.5 



778 
182 
714 
253 
5 
16 



APPENDIX 



405 



Table I. Average Composition of American Feeding Stuffs — continued. 



Feeding stuff 



Concentrates — con. 
By-products of factories, etc. — con. 

Oat bran 

Oat dust 

Oat feed, low grade 

Oat hulls 

Oat middlings 

Peanut cake, from liulled nuts . . . 

Potato flakes, dried 

Red dog flour 

Rice hran, high grade 

Rice bran, low grade 

Rice hulls 

Rice polish 

Rye bran 

Rye feed ( middlings and bran ) . . 

Rye middlings 

Soybean meal, fat extracted 

Wheat bran 

Wheat feed (middlings and bran) 

Wheat flour, patent 

W heat middlings, flour 

Wheat middlings, standard 

(shorts) 

Wheat screenings 

Animal products 

Buttermilk 

Cow's milk, whole 

Dried blood 

Fish meal, high in fat 

Aleat-andbone meal, 30-40% ash 

Meat scrap, high grade 

Meat scrap, fair grade 

Poultry bone 

Skim milk, centrifugal 

Tankage, over 60% protein 

Tankage, 55-60% protein 

Tankage, 45-55% protein 

Whey 

Dried Roughage 

Hay and cured forage from grasses 
and cereals 

Barley hay, common 

Bermuda hay 

Bluegrass hay, Kentucky 

Brome hay 

Crab grass hay 

Corn fodder (ears, if any, remain- 
ing), very dry, from barn or 
arid districts 







Crude 


Carbohydrates 




Water 


Ash 


proteiu 


Fiber 


N-free 
extract 


Fat 


Per ct. 


Perct. 


Per ct. 


Perct. 


Perct. 


Perct 


6.4 


6.1 


12.2 


18,3 


52.3 


4.7 


66 


7.0 


12,6 


18.7 


49.9 


5.2 


10.2 


4.0 


9.6 


18.5 


53.8 


3.9 


6.8 


6.0 


4,0 


29.2 


52.3 


1.7 


7.3 


3.2 


16.3 


4,6 


61.8 


0.8 


10.7 


4.9 


47.6 


5.1 


23.7 


8.0 


12.1 


4.0 


7.1 


2.9 


73.6 


0.3 


11.1 


2.5 


16,8 


2.2 


63.3 


4.1 


10 I 


9.7 


12.1 


12.4 


44.3 


11.4 


!).5 


11.3 


10,9 


15.8 


42.7 


9.8 


0.3 


16,9 


3.3 


35.4 


34.0 


1.1 


10.0 


4.8 


11.9 


1.9 


02.3 


9.1 


11.4 


3.5 


15,3 


4.0 


62,7 


3.1 


11.5 


3.8 


15,3 


4.7 


01.5 


3 2 


11.4 


3.7 


15,7 


4.6 


61,2 


3,4 


11.8 


5.4 


414 


5.3 


28,7 


74 


10.1 


6.3 


16.0 


9.5 


53.7 


4.4 


10.1 


5.2 


16.8 


7,6 


55.7 


4.0 


12.3 


0.5 


10.9 


0.4 


74.6 


1.3 


10.7 


3.7 


17.8 


4.7 


58.1 


5.0 


10.5 


4.4 


17.4 


6,0 


56,8 


4,9 


10.2 


3.9 


13.3 


7.4 


01.1 


4.1 


90.6 


0.7 


3,6 




5.0 


0.1 


86.4 


0.7 


3.5 




5.0 


4.4 


9.7 


3.3 


82.3 




3.8 


0.9 


10.8 


29.2 


48.4 






11.0 


00 


30.8 


39.8 


2.1 


4.1 


11,2 


7.5 


16 6 


50.3 




5.0 


11.0 


0.7 


25.5 


52.0 




5.4 


10.4 


7.3 


61.7 


24.3 




3.0 


3,1 


00.1 


07 


3,8 




5.2 


2 


7.4 


10.5 


63.1 


3,() 


2.5 


12.9 


7.5 


13.6 


58.1 


4,9 


2.9 


13,0 


7.5 


19.7 


51,7 


3,0 


4.2 


14.0 


93.4 


0.7 


0,8 




4.8 


0.3 


7.4 


6.4 


7.0 


29,7 


47.3 


2.2 


9.7 


7.6 


7 1 


25. () 


48.2 


1.8 


13 2 


6.6 


8,3 


283 


-10.7 


20 


8 5 


7,7 


9 


3 1 :i 


^0 2 


2,4 


9.5 


8.5 


8,0 


28.7 


42.9 


2.4 


9.0 


6.5 


7,8 


272 


47.3 


2,2 



No. of 
anal- 
yses 



5 

5 

8 

16 

23 

2,480 

2."i!1 

831 

475 

15 

1,013 

26 

186 

128 

6 

7,742 

1.601 

73 

470 

4,641 
60 



1,047 

45 

6 

59 



24 

42 
57 
53 



1-^ 

2fi 

8 



56 



406 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



Table I. AvKRAt;K Composition of Asiericax Feeding Stiffs — continued. 



Feeding stuff 



Water 



Dried Rougiiagi: — con. 
Uay and cured forage from grasses 

and cereals — con. 
Corn fodder, medium in water . . 

Corn fodder, high in water 

Corn fodder, sweet 

Corn stover (ears removed), very 

dry 

Corn stover, medium in water . . . 

Corn stover, high in water 

Fowl meadow grass ha}' 

Foxtail or wild barley liay 

Japanese cane fodder 

Johnson grass hay 

Kafir fodder, dry 

Kafir fodder, high in water 

Kafir stover, dry 

Millet hay, barnyard 

Millet hay, common, or Hungarian 

Millet hay, German 

Milo fodder, dry ■ 

Natal grass hay 

Oat hay 

Orchard grass hay 

Para grass hay 

Prairie hay, western 

Red top hay 

Sorghum fodder, dry 

Sorghum fodder, high in water . . 
Sudan hay 

Teosinte hay 

Timothy hay, all analyses 

Timothy iiay, cut before bloom . . . 
Timothy hay, cut at early to full 

bloom 

Timothy hay, cut at late bloom . . 

Timothy rowen hay 

Wheat hay 

Hay from the I rg times 

Alfalfa, all analyses 

Alfalfa, before bloom 

Alfalfa, in bloom 

Alfalfa, in seed 

Alfalfa meal 

Alfalfa leaves 

Beggarweed 

Clover, alsike 

Clover, bur 

Clover, crimson, or scarlet 



Ash 



1S.3 
3!). 3 
12.3 

0.4 
19.0 

41.0 

11.1 
7.5 
G.8 

10.1 
9.0 

28.3 

1G.3 
13.5 
14.3 

8.7 
11.1 

9.8 
12.0 

11. fi 
9.8 
6.5 
9.8 
9.7 
37.4 
10.0 

lO.G 
11. G 

7.2 

1-2.8 
14.9 
15.1 

8.1 



8.G 

62 

7.5 

10.4 

8.8 

6 6 
9.1 

12.3 
7.0 

10.6 



Crude 
protein 



Perct. 



5 
3.G 
9.0 

5.8 
5.5 

3.8 
7.2 
8.8 

2 
7.5 
94 
3.3 

8 3 
8.2 
G.3 
GO 

9 9 
5.0 
6.8 

6.9 
6.6 
77 
6.8 
7.8 

3 1 
6.4 

10 3 
4.9 
6.6 



Perct 



4.8 
9.2 

5.9 
57 

3.9 
9.8 
7.0 
1.4 
6.6 
8.9 
6.5 

5.1 

8.3 
8.3 
8.0 
12.0 
7.4 
8.4 

7.9 
4.6 
8.0 
7.4 
7.4 
3.9 
6.1 

9.1 
6 2 
9.8 



Carboliydrates 



Fiber 



K-free 

L'Xtract 



4.G 


6.3 


29.5 


4 5 


5.5 


28.3 


6.9 


14.4 


24.3 


6.4 


6.2 


24.7 


8.6 


14.9 


28.3 


100 


22.0 


20.5 


10.0 


15.0 


30.2 


70 


12 2 


27.G 


9.0 


14.3 


30.1 


13.6 


22.5 


12.7 


8.4 


15.4 


27.5 


8.3 


12.8 


25.7 


10.8 


19.2 


23.0 


8.8 


14.1 


27.3 



22.0 
16.7 
26.4 

30.7 
27.7 

20.1 
28.8 
27.4 
20.6 
30.2 
26.8 
21.G 

27.4 
27.6 
24.0 
27.3 
18.4 
3G.8 
28.3 

30.3 
33.6 
30.5 
28.7 
26.1 
17.8 
30.6 

2G.4 
29.9 
28.1 



Perct 



45.8 
34.2 
41.3 

46.6 
40.9 

30.2 
40.4 
47.3 
67.3 
43.5 
43.1 
37.6 

41.2 
40.8 
44.3 
46.5 
44.1 
39.2 
41.7 

40.4 
44.5 
44.7 
45.0 
45.9 
35.0 
45.4 

41.7 
45.0 
45.1 

44.2 
44.0 
34.9 
52.6 



37.3 
37.1 
35.5 
40.3 
35.8 

41.2 
37.3 
.38.4 
37.0 
36.9 



Fat 



Per ct. 



2.2 
1.4 
1.8 

1.6 
12 

1.0 

2.7 
2.0 
1.9 
2.1 

2.8 
2.7 

1.7 
1.6 
2.8 
2.6 
4.5 
1.8 
2.8 

2.9 
0.9 
2.6 
2.3 
3.1 
2.8 
1.5 

1.9 
2.5 
3.2 

2.6 

2.8 
4.4 
2.0 



2.3 
4.2 
1.8 
2.5 
2.0 

3.4 
2.3 
2.5 
3.0 
2.3 



APPENDIX 



407 



Table I. Average Compositiox of American Feeding Stuffs — continued. 



Feeding stuff 



Dried Roughage — con. 
Hay from the legumes — con. 

Clover, manunotli i ed 

Clover, red, all analyses 

Clover, red, in bloom 

Clover, red, after bloom ......... 

Clover and mixed grasses 

Clover and timothy 

Clover, sweet, white 

Clover, white 

Clover rowen 

Cowpea 

Lespedeza, or Jajjan clover 

Pea, field 

Peas and oats 

Peanut vine, with nuts 

Peanut vine, without nuts 

Soybean hay 

Velvet bean 

Vetcli, common 

Vetch, hairy 

Vetch and oats 

Vetch and wheat 

Straw and chaff 

Barley straw 

Bean straw 

Buckwheat straw 

Cowpea straw 

Crimson clover straw 

Flax shives 

Millet straw 

Oat chaff 

Oat straw 

Rice straw 

Ry6 straw 

Soybean straw 

Wheat chaff 

Wheat straw 

Fresh Green Roughage 

Green forage from grasses ami 

cereals 

Barley fodder 

Bermuda grass 

Bluegrass, Kentucky 

Brome grass, smooth 

Buckwheat, .Japanese 

Corn fodder, all analyses 

Corn fodder, dent, all analyses . . 
Corn fodder, dent, in tassel 



Water 



Perot. 

1S.7 
12.!) 
13.0 
22.1 
10.1 
12 2 
8.6 

8.1 

14. S 

!).7 

n.s 

11 1 

]().() 

7.8 

21..-S 

S.(} 

7.2 

7.1 

12.3 

15.7 

1.5.0 



14.2 

10.5 
9.0 
8.. 5 

12.3 
72 

14.2 



11.5 

7.5 

7.1 

11.0 

14.4 

8.4 



70.8 
06.8 
08.4 
07.0 
03.4 
78.1 
700 
85 1 



Ash 



Crude 
prottlD 



Perct. Perct 



0.2 
7.1 
7.4 
0.0 
0.4 
0.1 
7.2 

8.0 

7.3 

11.0 

.5.8 
7.0 
7.3 
0.8 

8,7 
S.(> 
7.4 
8.2 
8.0 
0.7 
0.8 



5.7 
7.2 
5.5 
5 4 
7.0 
7.0 
5.2 

11.5 
5.4 

14.5 
3.2 

6.8 

7.2 
5.2 



2 1 
2.3 
2.8 
2.0 
3. (J 
1 2 
1.2 
1 1 



10.8 
12.8 
13.1 

no 

9.0 

8.0 

14.5 

10 2 
10.5 
10.3 
12 1 
15.1 
11.4 
13.3 

91 
Ki.O 
16.4 
17.3 
19.0 
10.6 
14.5 



3.5 
7.3 
5.2 

0.8 
7.5 
7.2 
3 

5.0 
36 
3.0 
3.0 
5.0 
4.2 
3.1 



3.3 
3.0 
4 1 
4.2 
4.0 
10 
19 
10 



Carbohydrates 



Fiber 



Perct. 

27.0 
25.5 
23.1 
21.9 

2S.5 
29.!) 
27.4 



20.4 
22.-5 
25.9 
24.5 
25.0 
24.3 

20 2 
24.!) 
27 5 
20.2 
24.8 
27.2 
27.2 



.30.0 
30.8 
43.0 
44.5 
38.8 
425 
35. S 

25 7 
30.3 
33.5 

38.0 
30.8 
28.0 
37.4 



0.0 
8.0 
8.7 
9.3 
8.0 
5.2 
5.5 
4.3 



Nfree 
e.xtract 



Perct. 

34.2 
38.7 
30 I 
33.8 
42.3 
40.8 
40.1 

41. (i 
37.3 
34,0 
41. (i 
37!) 
30.5 
37.4 

30 8 
3!),1 
38.4 
38.7 
31.0 
37.3 
34.4 



39.1 
42.9 
35 1 
33 6 
32.9 
32.9 
3!). 7 

403 
40.8 
39.2 
40.0 
37.2 
44.8 
44.4 



no 

18.9 
14.8 
15.1 
19 5 
13.0 
13.9 
7.6 



Fat 



Perct. 

3.1 
3.1 
3.4 
4.0 
2.8 
2.4 
2.2 

2.0 
3.7 
2.0 
2.8 
3 5 
2.0 
10.4 

3.7 
2.8 
3.1 
2.5 
2.8 
2.5 
2.1 



1.5 
1.3 
1.3 
1.2 

1.5 

3.2 
1.5 

2.4 
2.4 
1.4 
1.2 
1.7 
1.4 
1.5 



0.8 
1.0 
1.2 
1.5 
09 
6 

03 



No. of 
anal- 
yses 



408 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

Table I. Averagk Composition of American Feeding Stuffs — continued. 



Feeding stuff 









Carbohydrates 




Water 


Ash 


Crude 
protein 






Fat 


Fiber 


N free 
extract 


Perct. 


Per ft 


Perct. 


Peict. 


Perct. 


Per ct 


80.1 


1.1 


1.6 


4.9 


11.7 


0.6 


74.0 


1.1 


2.1 


5,6 


15.4 


0.9 


73.8 


1.2 


2.0 


6.2 


16.2 


0.6 


65.2 


1.4 


2.7 


7.4 


22.3 


1.0 


79.3 


I.O 


1.9 


4.6 


12.6 


0.6 


79.7 


1.2 


1.9 


4.4 


12.2 


0.6 


78.5 


1.3 


1,6 


5.6 


12.6 


0.4 


69.1 


4.3 


2.7 


9.1 


13.8 


1.0 


64.3 


3.5 


4.9 


11.8 


14 1 


1.4 


709 


2.0 


2.5 


9.3 


14.4 


0.9 


76.4 


1.9 


2.4 


6.6 


12.0 


0.7 


78.7 


1.6 


1.7 


6.7 


10.7 


0.6 


72.4 


2.1 


2.9 


8.4 


13.3 


0.9 


81.3 


1.6 


1.8 


6.2 


8.8 


0.3 


77.3 


1.4 


1.8 


7.0 


12.1 


0.4 


70.3 


3.0 


5.1 


6.3 


13.8 


1.5 


69.2 


1.8 


3.0 


10.6 


14.1 


1.3 


73.9 


2.1 


3.2 


7.8 


11.9 


1.1 


87.0 


1.6 


4.9 


1.7 


4.0 


0.8 


70.8 


2.5 


2.9 


9.8 


12.9 


1.1 


72.8 


2.4 


1.7 


9.2 


13.4 


0.5 


60.7 


2.7 


3.1 


12.2 


20.2 


1.1 


78.7 


1.7 


2.6 


7.3 


9.0 


0.7 


75.1 


1.4 


15 


7.0 


14.0 


1.0 


78.7 


2.0 


1.7 


6.7 


10.4 


0.5 


02.5 


2.2 


3.1 


11.7 


19.3 


1.2 


72.0 


2.7 


3.6 


7.5 


12.8 


0.8 


74.7 


2.4 


4.5 


7.0 


10.4 


1.0 


SO.l 


2.3 


4.7 


4.2 


7.9 


0.8 


74.1 


2.5 


4.4 


7.8 


10.4 


0.8 


70.2 


2.2 


2.9 


12.8 


11.3 


0.() 


72.9 


3.2 


4.2 


7.5 


11.7 


0.5 


75.7 


2.4 


4.1 


6.5 


10.7 


0.0 


79.2 


2.3 


5.1 


3.9 


7.8 


1.7 


82.6 


1.7 


3.0 


4.7 


7.4 


0.(» 


74.9 


2.3 


4.0 


7.3 


11.0 


0.5 


73.8 


2.1 


4.1 


7.3 


11.7 


1.0 


72.7 


1.6 


3.0 


8.5 


13.3 


0.9 


75.0 


2.1 


4.4 


7.0 


10.2 


0.7 


78.2 


2.7 


4.6 


4.2 


9.5 


0.8 


83.7 


2.0 


3.0 


3.8 


7.0 


0.5 


80.0 


1.8 


2.1 


5.3 


10.4 


0.4 


81.3 


1.7 


1.5 


5.5 


9.5 


0.5 


82.4 


2.0 


3.6 


4.2 


7.3 


0.5 


83.4 


1.6 


3.6 


4.0 


6.9 


0.5 



Fresh Green Roughage — con. 
Green forage from grasses and 
cereals — con. 

Corn fodder, dent, in milk 

Corn fodder, dent, dough to glazing 
Corn fodder, dent, kernels glazed 
Corn fodder, dent, kernels ripe .. 
Corn fodder, flint, all analyses . . . 
Corn fodder, sweet, roasting cars 

or later 

Corn fodder, sweet, ears removed 

Crab grass 

Fo.xtail or wild barlej' 

Johnson grass 

Kafir fodder 

Millet, barnyard 

Millet, common, or Hungarian . . . 

Millet, pearl, or cat-tail 

Milo fodder 

^li.xed grasses, immature 

^lixed grasses, at haying stage . . . 

Oat fodder 

Oat fodder, 8 in. high 

Orchard grass 

Para grass 

Red top 

Rye fodder 

Sweet sorghum fodder 

Teosinte 

Timothy 

Wheat fodder 

Green legumes 

Alfalfa, all analyses 

Alfalfa, before bloom 

Alfalfa, in bloom 

Alfalfa, after bloom 

Beggarweed 

Clover, alsike 

Clover, bur 

Clover, crimson 

Clover, mammoth red 

Clover, red 

Clover and mixed grasses 

Clover, sweet 

Clover, white 

Cowpeas 

Cowpeas and corn 

Cowpeas and sorghum 

Horse bean 

Peas, field, Canada 



APPENDIX 



40'J 



Tabf.e I. Average Co>rposiTioN of American Feeding Stuffs — contitmed. 



Feeding stuff 



Water 



Ash 



Crude 
protein 



Carbohydrates 



Fiber 



N-free 
I'Xtract 



Fat 



No of 
anal- 
yses 



Fresh Greex Roughage 
(Ireen legumes — con 

Peas and oats 

Kudzu vine 

Lespedeza, or Japan clover 

Serradella 

Soybeans 

Soybeans and corn 



Soybeans and kafir 

Velvet bean 

\'etcli, common . . . . 

Vetch, liairy 

Vetch and oats . . . . 
Vetch and wheat . . 



Roots, tubers, etc. 

Artichoke 

Beet, common 

T?eet, sugar 

Carrot 

Cassava 

Chufa 



]\rangel 

Parsnip . . . . 

Potato 

Rutabaga . . . 
Sweet potato 
Turnip 



Miscellaneous yreen forages 

Apple 

Apple pomace 

Cabbage 

Cactus, cane, entire plant .... 

Cactus, pricklv pear 

Kale \ ..\.... .. 

Kohlrabi 

Pumpkin, field 

Rape 

Saltbush, Australian 

Sugar i)eet leaves 

Sugar beet tops 

Silage 

Alfalfa 

Apple pomace 

Barley 

Clover 

Corn, well matured 

Corn, immature 



Per ct. 

77.4 
(>0.4 
6:5.4 
7!).S 
7(i.4 
702 

S-2.0 
S2 1 
70.(5 

SI. 8 

7:?.r, 



70.-) 
S7 
8.-] G 

ss.;} 

(574 
70 5 

00.fi 
S3 4 

7SS 
SO I 
(5SS 

on.j 



si.s 

7(i 7 
01. 1 
80.fi 
S:]..l 

88 7 

010 
01.7 
S;{.3 
76.7 

88.4 
88. G 



7.5 4 
704 
75 () 
72 2 
737 
70 



Perct Perct 



2.0 
2.2 
3.5 
3.0 
2.4 
1.7 

2.1 
2.0 
2.1 
2 2 
2.3 
1.6 



1.7 
1.5 
1.1 
1.2 
1.0 
0.4 

1.0 
1.3 
1.1 
1.0 
1.1 
0.0 



0.4 
1.0 
O.S 
1.7 
3.4 
1.0 

1.3 
0.0 
2.2 
5.4 
1.8 
2.0 



2.0 
1.0 
2.(i 
2.5 
1.7 
1.4 



3.2 
5.5 
67 
2.0 
4.1 



20 
3.5 
3S 
42 
3.S 
3 3 



2.0 
16 
1.6 
1.2 
1.1 
0.7 

1.4 
1.7 
2 2 
12 
18 
1.4 



5 
16 
2.2 

OS 
2.4 

2.0 
1.4 
2 
3.7 
1.0 
26 



3.5 
1.6 
26 
3.7 
2 1 
1 



Perct. 

6.3 
8.3 
10.7 
4.8 
ti.3 
5.4 

6.2 
5 1 
5.5 
5.0 

7.5 
7.1 



08 
0.0 
1.0 
l.l 
1.4 
2.2 

OS 
1.3 
0.4 
1.4 
13 
1.1 



1.3 
4.6 
0.0 
1.1 
23 
1.5 

1 3 
1.3 
2.6 
4.4 
l.l 
1.2 



8.2 
4.5 
0.4 
00 
6 3 
5 8 



Per it. 

10.1 
13.6 
14.7 

8.8 

O.S 

13.2 

6.2 
V,M 
8.5 
6 3 
12.0 
10.1 



15 

SO 
12.6 

8.0 
28.8 
10.5 

fi.l 
11.0 
17.4 

7.0 
26.4 

5.0 



15 6 
14.5 
4.7 
6 5 
0.7 
5.0 

4 3 
4.2 
8.4 
0.4 
6.5 
5.3 



86 
122 

0.4 
115 
15 4 
11.3 



Pent. 

10 
1.0 
1.0 
0.7 
l.O 
0.8 

0.6 
0.7 
0.5 
0.5 
0.0 
0.6 



01 
1 
1 
2 
0.3 
6.6 

1 
0.4 
0.1 
3 
OC. 
0.2 



0.4 
16 
03 
2 
0.3 
0.5 

0.1 
05 
O.G 
0.4 
0.3 
0.3 



14 
1 3 
1.0 
11 
0.8 
0.6 



46 
1 
1 
8 
145 
9 

I 

I 

14 

21 

15 

5 



8(i 

18 

3 



38 

2 

465 

10 
145 

20 





17 

5 

5 

04 

12 

2 

4 
37 
7 
5 
4 



2 
14 

2 

14 

121 

53 



410 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

Table I. Average CoitrosixioN of American Feeding Stiffs — continued. 



Feeding stuff 



Silage — con. 

Corn, from field-cured stover 

Corn and clover 

Corn and soj'bean 

Cowpea 

Field pea 

Japanese cane , 

Kafir 

Millet 

Oat 

Oat and pea 

Pea-cannery refuse 

Rye 

Sorghum, sweet 

Sorghum and cowpea 

Soybean 

Sugar beet leaves 

Sugar beet pulp 

Vetch 

Wet brewers' grains 



Water 



Perct. 
80.4 
71.4 
75. ,3 
78.0 
72.1 
77.6 

60.2 
68.4 

71.7 
72..5 

76. S 
72.8 

77.2 
67.7 
72.0 
77.0 
00.0 
60.0 
70.2 



Ash 



Perct. 
1.4 
2.2 
2.0 
2.2 
2.(5 
2.0 

2.5 
3.4 
1.0 
2.8 
1.3 
2.1 

1.6 
2.2 
3.5 
4.4 
03 
2.4 
1.2 



Crude 
protein 



Perct. 
1.4 
3.3 
2.5 
3.2 
3.8 
1.5 

1.8 
2.8 
2.0 
3.8 
2.8 
3.0 

1.5 
2.4 
3.0 
2.8 
1.5 
3.5 
6.4 



Carbohydrates 


Fat 


Fiber 


N-free 
extract 


Per ct. 


Perct. 


Perct. 


6.3 


0.8 


0.7 


7.7 


14.5 


0.0 


6.7 


12.5 


1.0 


6.3 


9.4 


0.0 


7.8 


12.5 


1.2 


8.6 


9.7 


0.6 


0.9 


15.0 


1.1 


0.7 


14.6 


1.1 


O.S 


13.3 


1.3 


0.6 


10.0 


1.3 


65 


11.3 


1.3 


9.8 


11.6 


0.7 


6.0 


no 


0.0 


8.5 


1S.2 


1.0 


8.1 


10.3 


1.3 


4.7 


10.6 


0.5 


3.1 


4.7 


0.4 


9.8 


13.4 


1.0 


4.5 


15.6 


2.1 



No. of 
anal- 
yses 



3 
1 
15 
9 
8 
1 

3 
6 



APPENDIX 



•411 



Table II. Average Digestibility of Important Feeding Stuffs 

Tlie following digestion coefficients, obtained in experiments with ruminants, 
for some of the most important American feeds are taken from the extensive 
table in the unabridged edition of Feeds and Feeding. The coefficients marked 
'"H & M" have been compiled by the authors; those marked "L" are from the 
compilation by Lindsey of the Massachusetts Station ; and those marked "M" 
are from ISIentzel and Lengerke's Landirirtschaftliche Kalender. 



Feeding stuff 



COXCEXTRATES 

Barley 

Beet pulp, dried 

Brewers' grains, dried . . 

Corn cob 

Corn-and-cob meal 

Corn meal 

Cottonseed meal 

Cowpea meal 

Distillers' grains, largely 

from corn 

Emmer 

Flax seed 

Gluten feed 

Hominy feed 

Kafir, ground 

Linseed meal, old process 

Malt sprouts 

Molasses, cane, or black- 
strap 

Oat hulls 

Oats 

Rice polish 

Rye meal 

Skim milk 

Soybeans, ground 

Wheat, ground 

Wheat bian 

Wheat feed 

Wheat middlings, flour . . 
Wheat middlings, stand'd 

Dried Roughage 

Alfalfa hay 

Barley hay 

Bermuda grass hay 

Bluegrass hay, Kentucky 

Brome grass hay 

Clover hay, alsike 

Clover hay, crimson 

Clover hay, red 

Clover and timothy hay. . 
Corn fodder, dent, mature 



No. of 
trials 



1.-) 
.•5 
5 
3 

12 
15 



17 
15 

7 

It) 
n 



26 

1 

17 
4 



3 
15 
4 
20 
4 
4 
6 



109 

4 

9 

7 

11 

15 

13 

25 

13 

30 



Dry 

matter 



Per ct. 
8S 
75 
61 
54 
70 
90 
77 

87 
79 

77 

86 
S3 



79 



78 
54 
70 



87 
98 
88 
87 
05 
73 
82 



60 
59 
54 
56 
63 
56 
62 
59 
55 
66 



Crude 
protein 



Per ct. 

78 
52 
81 
19 
52 
74 
84 

82 

73 

80 
91 

85 
66 
81 

89 

77 

32 
50 

78 
67 

84 
94 

84 
74 

78 

77 
88 

77 



71 
65 
52 
57 
51 
62 
69 
59 
47 
45 



Carbohydrate.'? 



Fiber 



Per ct. 

56 
S3 
49 
60 
45 
57 
37 

64 

95 

64 
60 
76 
76 
55 

57 

87 



60 
35 
26 



81 
59 
31 
36 
36 
30 



43 
62 
52 
66 
59 
48 
47 
54 
51 
63 



Nfree 
extract 



Per ct. 

92 

S3 
57 
52 
88 
94 
75 

93 

81 

89 
55 
88 
90 
92 

78 
80 

90 
53 
81 
91 

92 
98 
73 
93 
72 
76 
88 
78 



72 
63 
51 
61 
64 
64 
65 
66 
60 
73 



Fat 



Per ct. 

78 

89 
50 
84 
93 
95 

74 

95 

88 
86 
85 
91 
76 

89 



77 
87 

82 

04 
98 
82 
72 
68 
87 
86 
88 



38 
41 
42 
52 
39 
43 
44 
57 
45 
70 



Au- 
thority 



h&:m 

H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 

H & M 

L 

II&M 

M 

H & M 
H & M 
H&M 

H&M 
H&M 

H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 

H&M 
H&M 

U 
H&M 
H & M 
H&M 

L 

L 



H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
L 



412 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



Table II. Average Digestibility of Important Feeding Stxjffs — continued. 



Feeding stuff 



Dried Roughage — con. 

Corn stover 

Cottonseed hulls 

Cowpea hay 

Johnson j;iass ha}' 

Kahr fodder 

Kafir stover 

Millet hay, Hungarian . . 

Oat hay 

Oat straw 

Orchard grass liay 

Peas and oats hay 

Prairie hay, western .... 

Red top hay 

Sorglium fodder 

Soybean iiay 

Timotiiy hay 

Vetch hay, haiiy 

Fresh Green Rolghage 

Alfalfa 

Beet, sugar 

Clover, red 

Corn fodder, dent, mature 

Cowpea 

Mangel 

Oat fodder 

Pea, field, Canada 

Peas and oats 

Potato 

Rape 

Red top 

Rutabaga 

Sorghum fodder 

Sojbean 

Timothy 

Vetch, hairy 

Silage 
Corn, dent, well matured 

Corn and soybean 

Kafir, well matured 

Oat and pea 

Sorghum, well matured . 









Carboh 


vdrates 






No of 


Drv 


Crude 








Au- 


trials 


matter 


protein 


Fiber 


Nfree 
extract 


Fat 


thority 




Per ft. 


Per .t. 


Per it. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 




.■>.5 


57 


37 


66 


59 


62 


H&M 


1:! 


41 


6 


47 


34 


79 


L 


4 


50 


68 


47 


68 


39 


11 & :\i 


9 


57 


44 


67 . 


57 


46 


11 & M 


8 


59 


46 


60 


67 


60 


11 & M 


5 


56 


34 


67 


60 


75 


H & M 


2 


65 


60 


68 


67 


64 


H&M 


0-) 


54 


54 


52 


56 


61 


H & M 


IS 


54 


28 


60 


51 


39 


H & M 


3 


58 


60 


61 


56 


55 


H & M 


7 


G2 


73 


58 


61 


59 


H & M 


IG 






58 


53 


42 


H&M 


;? 


60 


62 


61 


63 


53 


11 & M 


20 


58 


38 


61 


63 


65 


11 &M 


4 


60 


73 


57 


64 


44 


H & M 


58 


55 


48 


50 


62 


50 


L 


8 


67 


79 


59 


71 


67 


H&M 


o 


61 


74 


42 


72 


38 


H&M 


30 




72 


34 


97 




:m 


2 


66 


67 


53 


78 


65 


H & :\i 


23 


69 


54 


59 


to 


/■> 


L 


4 


68 


76 


60 


81 


5!) 


H & M 


(5 


84 


59 


78 


94 




H&M 


5 




73 


5) 


63 


70 


H & yi 


8 


63 


81 


49 


74 


54 


H&M 


10 


70 


74 


59 


68 


64 


H&:\i 


30 




51 




90 




il 


4 


86 


89 


87 


92 


49 


H & M 


3 




61 


61 


62 


50 


M 


o 


87 


80 


74 


95 


84 


II & M 





65 


44 


55 


73 


64 


L 


2.5 


64 


77 


45 


iO 


53 


H&M 


3 


63 


48 


56 


{H> 


53 


U&.M 


14 


71 


83 


64 


77 


72 


H&M 


27 


66 


51 


65 


71 


82 


L 


8 


69 


63 


(J2 


1 1 


83 


H&M 


3 


55 




57 


62 


50 


L 


•? 


65 


75 


61 


67 


/.I 


H&M 


3 


57 




58 


64 


56 


L 



APPENDIX 



413 



Table III. Average Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Con- 
stituents IN American Feeding Stuffs 

The data in this table which includes the important American feeding stuffs are 
taken from the much more extensive table in the unabridged edition of Feeds 
and t'eedmg. Tlie digestible nutrients have been computed from the data in 
Appendix Table I and the extensive compilation of digestion coefficients given in 
tiie unabridged edition of this book. Where no digestion coetlicients are available 
for any feed, tiie digestion coefficients for a similar feed iiave been used and 
that fact indicated by an asterisk. The total digestii)le nutrients given in the 
lifth column is tiie sum of the digestible crude protein, tiie digestible carbo- 
iiydrates, and the digestible fat X 2.25. For convenience in computing rations, 
tiie nutritive ratio of each feeding stuff is shown in tlie sixtii column. 

The figures for dry matter, digestible crude protein, and total digestible 
nutrients are printed in black-face type, since these values are the only ones 
needed in computing rations according to the Modified Wolff-Lehmann Standards 
given in Appendix Table V. 

Tlie fertilizing constituents given are mostly from an exhaustive compilation 
by the autiiors of tlie analyses reported by the State Experiment Stations and 
the United States Department of Agriculture. A fev/ values have been taken 
from Mentzel and Lengerkes Landwirtschaftliche Kalender for 1914, and other 
sources. 

This table is fully protected by copyright. 



Feeding stuff 



Concentrates 
Grains and seeds 

Barley 

Broom-corn seed * . 

Buckwheat 

Corn, dent 

Corn, flint 

Corn, soft 

Corn, sweet * 

Corn-and-cob meal . 
Corn and oat feed, 

high grade * .... 
Corn and oat feed, 

low grade * 

Cotton seed 

Cowpea 

Durra grain * 

Emmer (spelt) . . . . 
Feterita grain * ... 

Flax seed 

Horse bean 

Kafir grain 

Kafir-head chops . . . 
Kaoliang grain * . . 



Toial dry 
matter in 
100 Itis. 



Lbs. 

90.7 
88.2 
87.9 
89.5 
87.8 
69.4 
90.7 

89.6 

88.6 

90.5 
90.6 
88.4 

90.1 
91.3 
89.2 
908 
87.4 
882 
i 87.5 
90.1 



Digestible nutrients in 100 Itis. 



Crude 
protein 



9.0 
8.3 
8.1 
7.5 
7.7 
5.5 
8.5 

6.1 

7.3 

6.0 

13.3 
19.4 

8.2 
9.5 
93 
20.6 
22.8 
90 
6.1 
8.5 



(!aroo- 
tiyoraies 

Lbs 

66.8 
62.9 
49.7 
67.8 
66.1 
53.3 
64.5 

63.7 

60.6 

52.4 
29.6 
54.5 

67.9 
63.2 
66.6 
17.0 
49.1 
65.8 
56.6 
67.0 



Fat 

L))s. 

1.6 
2.6 
2.5 
4.6 
4.6 
3.5 
7.3 



3.1 

16.5 

1.1 

2.7 
1.7 
2.5 
29.0 
0.7 
2.3 
2.0 
33 



Nutritive 
ratio 



Iota! 

Lbs. 

79.4 
77.0 
63.4 
85.7 
84.2 
66.7 
89.4 

78.1 

75.6 

65.4 
80.0 
76.4 

82.2 
76.5 
81.5 
102.8 
735 
80.0 
66.7 
82.9 



7.8 
8.3 
6.8 

10.4 
9.9 

11.1 
9.5 

11.8 

9.4 

9.9 
5.0 
2.9 

9.0 
7.1 
7.8 
4.0 
2.2 
7.9 
9.9 
8.8 



Fertilizing constituents 
in 1000 lbs. 



Nitro- 
gen 



18.4 
16.3 
17.3 
16.2 
16.6 
11.8 
18.4 

13.8 

15.4 

14.2 
31.2 
37.8 

16.2 
19.0 
18.4 
36.2 
41.9 
17.8 
15.5 
16.8 



Phas- 
pharic 
acid 


Potasli 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


8.5 


7.4 


10.0 
6.9 

6.8 
5.4 


7 
4.0 
3.9 
3.1 


5.8 


6.3 


7.5 


4.8 


5.7 
15.0 
10.1 


5.1 
15.0 
14.9 


7.6 


5.7 


15.0 
12.4 

5.7 


9.5 

13.4 

3.1 



414 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

Table III. Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents — continued. 

















f ertiliziHE constituents 




Total diy 


DieestibiB nutrients in 100 Ibi 


Nutritive 
ratio 




n 1000 lbs. 




Fssdine stuff 


matter 'n 
100 Ibi 










Nitro- 
sen 


PilOS- 

phonc 
acid 




Cruds 
protein 


l^rlMi- 
hydrates 


Fat 


Total 


Pttash 


Concentrates — con. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


1: 


Ll)s. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Clrains and seeds — 




















con. 




















^Millet seed, hog, or 




















broom corn 


90.9 


8.4 


C3.7 


2.4 


77.5 


•8.2 


18.9 


7.2 


5.2 


Milo grain * 


89.3 


8.7 


CG.2 


2.2 


79.9 


8.2 


17.1 


7.8 


4.3 


Milo-head chops* . . . 


89.7 


6.3 


5S.1 


1.9 


687 


9.9 


16.0 






Oats 


90.8 


9.7 


52.1 


3.8 


70.4 


6.3 


19.8 


8.1 


5.6 


Peanut, with hull * . 


935 


18.4 


15.3 


32.6 


107.1 


4.8 


32.6 


7.6 


6.4 


Pea, field 


90.8 


19.0 


55.8 


0.6 


76.2 


3.0 


36.6 


8.4 


10.1 


Rice, rough * 


90.4 


4.7 


64.6 


1.7 


73.1 


14.6 


12.2 


4.9 


2.6 


Rye 


90.6 
90.3 


9.9 
10.1 


68.4 
66.3 


1.2 

2.6 


81.0 
82.2 


7.2 
7.1 


18.9 
20.0 


7.3 


5.7 


Siiallu grain * 




Sorglium grain * . . . . 


87.3 


7.5 


66.2 


2.6 


79.5 


9.6 


14.7 


8.2 


3.3 


Soybean 


90.1 
88.3 


30.7 
18.1 


22.8 
50.8 


14.4 
5.3 


85.9 
80.8 


l.S 
3.5 


58.4 
33.3 


13.7 


24.7 


Velvet bean, seed * 




Velvet bean, seed and 




















pod * 


87.7 
898 


14.9 
9.2 


51.7 
67.5 


3.8 
1.5 


75.2 
80.1 


4.0 

7.7 


27.4 
19.8 


8.6 




Wlieat, all analyses . 


5.3 


Wlieat, spring 


89.9 


9.2 


67.2 


1.6 


800 


7.7 


20.0 


8.6 


5.3 


Wheat, winter 


89.1 


8.7 


67.8 


1.4 


79.7 


8.2 


18.7 


8.5 


5.2 


Byproducts of fac- 




















tories, etc. 




















Beet pulp, dried .... 


91.8 


4.6 


65.2 


0.8 


71.6 


14.6 


14.2 


2.4 


3.8 


Beet pulp, molasses- . 


92.4 


5.9 


68.0 


0.6 


75.3 


11.8 


15.2 


1.5 


18.1 


Beet pulp, wet * . . . . 


9.3 


0.5 


6.5 


0.2 


7.4 


13,8 


1.4 


0.4 


0.7 


Brewers' grains, dried 


92.5 


21.5 


30.5 


6.1 


65.7 


2.1 


42.4 


9.9 


0.9 




24.1 


4.6 


8.7 


1.5 


16.7 


2.6 


9.1 


2.4 


0.3 


Buckwheat bran, high 




















grade 


88.8 


10.5 


30.4 


3.2 


48.1 


3.6 


35.7 


16.5 


10.0 


Buckwheat feed, good 




















oradp * - 


88.2 


9.1 


30.2 


2.9 


45.8 


4.0 


30.9 


11.0 


7.9 


&■ auc 

Buckwheat feed, low 




grade * 


88.1 
89.7 


3.7 
0.4 


24.0 
13.9 


2.1 

0.7 


32.4 
159 


7.8 
38.8 


21.3 

7.0 


8.4 
5.7 


8.2 


Buckwheat hulls * . . 


8.6 


Buckwheat middlings 


88.0 


24.6 


38.3 


6.1 


76.6 


2.1 


45.3 


23.4 


11.8 


Cocoanut meal, low in 




















fat 


90.4 


18.8 


42.0 


8.1 


79.0 


3.2 


33.4 


12.5 


23.7 


Corn bran 


90.0 
90.0 


5.8 
0.4 


56.9 
47.3 


4.6 
0.2 


73.1 
48.1 


11.6 
119.2 


15.5 
3.2 


6.2 
0.7 


5.4 


Corn cob 


6.6 


Cold-pressed cotton- 




seed cake 


92.1 


21.1 


33.2 


7.4 


70.9 


2.4 


41.8 






Cottonseed meal, 




















choice 


92.5 


37.0 


21.8 


8.6 


78.2 


1.1 


70.6 


26.7 


18.1 


Cottonseed meal. 




















prime 


92.2 


33.4 


24.3 


7.9 


75.5 


1.3 


63.7 


26.6 


18.0 







APPENDIX 



415 



Table III. Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents — continued. 



Fesdine stuff 



CoNCEJVTR ates — con . 
By-products of fac- 
tories, etc. — con. 

Cottonseed meal, 
good * 

Cottonseed feed 

Cottonseed hulls .... 

Distillers' grains, 
dried, from corn . . 

Distillers' grains, 
dried, from rye . . . 

Distillers' grains, 

wet * 

Flax feed * 

Flax screenings * . . . 

(Jerni oil meal 

Gluten feed 

Gluten meal 

Hominy feed 

Linseed meal, new 

process 

Linseed meal, old 

process 

Malt sprouts 

Molasses, beet * 

Molasses, cane, or 

blackstrap 

Oat bran * 

Oat dust * 

Oat feed, low grade . 

Oat hulls 

Oat middlings 

Peanut cake, from 

hulled nuts 

Potato flakes, dried * 

Red dog flour * 

Pvice bran, high grade 
Rice bran, low gi'ade 

Rice hulls 

Rice polish 

Rye bran * 

Rye feed (middlings 
and bran ) 

Rye middlings * .... 

Soybean meal, fat ex- 
tracted 



Total diy 
matter in 
100 lbs. 



DJEBStible nutnents in 100 lbs. 



T.bs. 



92.1 
91.7 
90.3 

93.4 

92.8 

22.6 
90.6 
91.4 
91.1 
91.3 
90.9 

89.9 

90.4 

90.9 
92.4 
74.7 

74.2 
93.6 
93.4 
89.8 
93.2 
92.7 

89.3 
87.9 
88.9 
89.9 
90.5 

90.7 
90.0 
88.6 

88.5 
88.6 

88.2 



Crude 
protein 



Ll)s. 



31.6 

14.2 

0.3 

22.4 

13.6 

3.3 
12.0 
11.1 
16.5 
21.6 
30.2 

7,0 

31.7 

30.2 

20.3 

1.1 



1.0 
8.8 
9.1 
6.9 
2.0 
13.0 



42.8 
3.6 

14.8 
7.9 
71 

0.3 

8.0 

12.2 

12.2 
12.6 

38.1 



Carbo- 
hydrates 



Lbs. 



25.6 
30.7 
33.3 

40.4 

38.0 

13.3 
34.2 
35.1 
42.6 
51.9 
43.9 

CI. 2 

37.9 

32.6 
474 
59.4 

58.2 
36.1 
34.9 
37.0 
45.2 
54.9 



20.4 
67.2 
56.5 
38.1 
37.7 

12.3 
57.2 
56.6 

55.8 
55.5 

33.9 



Fat 



Lbs. 



7.8 

5.7 

' 1.5 

11.6 

6.6 

1.5 

12.5 

10.4 

10.4 

3.2 

4.4 

7.3 

2.8 

6.7 
1.3 



3.9 
4.3 
3.2 
1.3 
6.3 



7.2 
0.2 
3.5 
8.8 
7.5 

0.7 

7.5 
2.8 

2.9 
3.1 

5.0 



Total 



Lbs. 



74.8 
57.7 
37.0 

88.9 

66.4 

20.0 
74.3 
69.6 
82.5 
80.7 
84.0 

84.6 

75.9 

77.9 
70.6 
60.5 

59.2 
53.7 
53.7 
51.1 
50.1 
82.1 



79.4 
71.2 
79.2 
65.8 
61.7 

14.2 
82.1 
75.1 

74.5 
75.1 

83.2 



Nutritive 
ratio 



1.4 

3.1 

122.3 

3.0 

3.9 



5.1 

5.2 
5.3 
4.0 
2.7 

l.S 

11.1 

1.4 

1.6 

2.5 

54.0 



58.2 
5.1 
4.9 
6.4 

24.1 
5.3 



0.9 

18.8 

4.4 

7.3 

7.7 

46.3 
9.3 

5.2 

5.1 
5.0 

1.2 



Fertilizing constituents 
in 1000 Ibi 



Nitro- 
gen 



Lbs. 



60.2 

39.2 

7.4 

49.1 

37.0 



7.2 
26. G 
24.6 
3C.2 
40.6 
56.8 

17.0 

59.0 

54.2 

42.2 

5.6 



5.0 
19.5 
20.2 
15.4 

6.4 
26.1 



76.2 
11.4 
26.9 
19.4 

17.4 

5.3 
19.0 
24.5 

24.5 
25.1 

66.2 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid 

Lbs. 



26.6 

14.7 

3.6 

6.8 

8.3 

1.6 

3.5 

13.2 

6.2 

5.5 

12.4 

17.7 

17.0 

16.5 

0.5 

2.4 



5.9 

2.1 

12.7 



11.6 

20.0 
22.2 
22.6 

0.9 
30.8 
15.4 

5.6 
5.6 



416 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



Table III. Digestible Nutkie.nts a^nu Fertilizing Constituents — continued. 





Total d(y 
mailer in 
100 lbs. 


DiEBStible nutrients in 100 lbs. 


Nutritive 
latio 


FertiliiinE constituents 
in 1G00 lbs. 


Fetdint stuff 


Nitro- 
ten 


Phos- 
phoric 
add 






Crude 
prstein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 

Lbs. 


Fat 


Total 


Potash 


Concentrates — con. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


1: 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Byproducts of fac- 




















tories, etc. — con. 




















Wheat bran 


89.9 


12.5 


41.6 


30 


60.9 


3.9 


25.6 


29.5 


16.2 


VV'lieat feed (mid- 




















dlings and bran) . . 


89.9 


12.9 


45.1 • 


4.0 


670 


4.2 


26.9 


21.9 


8.8 


Wiieat Hour, patent * 


87.7 


8.1 


G9.6 


0.9 


79.7 


S.S 


17.4 


2.0 


1.0 


Wheat middlings, 




















flour ... 


89.3 


15.7 


52.S 


4.3 


78.2 


4.0 


28.5 






Wheat middlings, 




standard (shorts) 


895 


134 


46.2 


4.3 


693 


4.2 


27.7 


21.1 


11.8 


Wheat screenings . . . 


89.8 


96 


47.3 


3.6 


65.0 


5.8 


21.3 


7.4 


7.6 


Animal products 




















Buttermilk * 


94 


34 


4.9 


0.1 


8.4 


1.5 


5.8 


1.7 


1.6 


Cow's milk 


13.6 


3.3 


4.9 


4.3 


17.9 


4.4 


5.6 


1.9 


1.7 


Dried blood 


90.3 


69.1 




0.9 


71.1 


0.03 


131.5 


4.9 


1.2 


Fisii meal, high in fat 


89.2 


37.8 




11.6 


63.9 


0.7 


77.4 


140.0 


3.0 


Meat-and-bone meal. 




















30-40% ash * 


94.0 


37.0 




11.0 


61.8 


0.7 


63.7 






Meat scrap, high 




















grade * 


92.5 


55.1 




11.4 


80.7 


0.5 








Meat scrap, fair 




grade * 


93.3 
92.7 


48.4 
22.6 




10.2 
3.0 


71.4 
29.4 


0.5 
0.3 


38.9 






Poultry bone * 




Skim milk, centri- 
fuoal 


9.9 

92.6 

92.5 

92.5 
66 


3.6 

58.7 

54.0 

48.1 
0.8 


5.1 
4.7 


0.2 

12.6 

12.7 

13.7 
0.3 


9.1 

87.0 

82.6 

78.9 
6.2 


1.5 

0.5 

0.5 

0.6 
6.S 


6.1 

101.0 

93.0 

82.7 
1.6 


2.2 
55.8 

101.5 
1.2 


1-7 


X L«j»j€.^i 

Tankage, over 60% 
protein * 


5.5 


Tankage, 55-60% 
protein * 




Tankage, 45-55% 
protein * 




Whev * 


2.6 


Dried Roughage 




Haij and cured forage 




















from grasses and 




















cereals 




















Barley hay, common . 
Bermuda hay 


92 6 
90.3 


4.6 
3.7 


'48.2 
37.9 


0.9 
O.S 


54.8 
43.4 


10.9 
10.7 


11.2 
11.4 


4.0 


2 0.0 


Bluegrass hay, Ken- 
tucky 


86.8 


4.7 


43.5 


1..-) 


51.6 


10.0 


13 3 


5.4 


21 


Brome hav 


91.5 
90.5 


5.0 
3.5 


44.2 
40.0 


0,!) 
1.0 


51.2 
45.7 


9.2 
12.1 


15.8 
12.8 


4.2 
9.0 


21 P> 


(^rab grass 


30.9 


Corn fodder (ears, if 




















any, remaining), 




















very dry, from barn 
or arid districts . . 


91.0 


3.5 


51.7 


1.5 


58.6 


15.7 


12.5 


3.7 


9.9 



APPENDIX 



417 



Table IIL Digestible Nutrients and I'prtii.izino Constituents — continued. 



Feeding stuff 



Dried Roughage 

Hay and cured forage 

front grasses and 

cereals — con. 

Corn fodder, medium 
in water 

Corn fodder, high in 
\vat(>r 

Corn fodder, sweet . . 

Corn stover (ears re- 
moved ) , very dry . 

Corn stover, medium 

in water 

Corn stover, high in 

water 

Fowl meadow grass 

hay * 

Foxtail or wild barlev 

hay * '. 

Japanese cane fodder * 
Johnson grass hay . . 
Kafir fodder, dry . . . 
Kafir fodder, high in 

water 

Kafir stover, dry .... 
Millet liay, l)arnyard 
Millet liay, common, 

or Hungarian .... 

Millet hay. German * 
Milo fodder, dry .... 
Natal grass hay * . . . 

Oat hay 

Orchard grass hay . . 

Para grass Kay 

Prairie hay, western 
Red top hay 

Sorghum fodder, dry 
Sorghum fodder, high 

in water 

Sudan hay 

Teosinte hay * 

Timothy hay, all 
analyses 

Timothy hay, cut be- 
fore i)loom 

Timothy hay, cut at 
earlv to full bloom 



Total div 
matter in 
100 im. 



Lbs. 



81.7 

60.7 
87.7 

90.6 



81.0 
59.0 
88.9 
92.5 

93.2 
89.9 
91.0 

71.7 
837 
86.5 

85.7 

91.3 
88.9 
902 
88.0 
88.4 
902 
935 
90.2 

90.3 

62.6 
900 
89.4 

88.4 
92.8 
872 



Digestible nutrients in 100 lbs. 



Crude 
proiem 



Lbs. 



3.0 

2.2 
5.9 

2.2 



2.1 
1.4 
6.1 
4.0 

05 
2.9 

4.1 

30 
1.7 
5.1 

5.0 

48 
1.9 
3.7 
4.5 
4.7 
2.3 
4.0 
4.6 

2.8 

1.5 
2.7 
5.6 



3.0 
4.7 



Carbo< 
hydrates 



Lbs. 



Fat 



35.5 
47.6 



47.S 



42.4 
31.1 
43.0 

48.4 

55.0 
45.0 
45.0 

38.2 
43.1 
40.5 

46.0 

49.7 
363 
37.9 
38.1 
41.1 
38.7 
41.4 
45.9 

44.8 

32.9 
45.4 
40.2 

42.8 
42.0 



36 44.7 



Lbs. 



1.5 

1.0 
1.3 

1.0 



0.7 
O.G 
1.4 

11 

1.2 
1.0 
1.7 

l.fi 
1.3 

0.8 

1.8 

1.7 
2.8 
0.8 
1.7 
1.6 
0,4 
1.1 
1.2 

2.0 

1.8 
0.7 
0.9 



1.2 
1.6 
1.2 



Total 



Lbs. 



53.7 

39 9 
56.4 

52.2 



46.1 
33.9 
52.3 

54.9 

58.2 
50.1 
52.9 

44.8 
47.7 
47.4 

55.0 

583 

44. J 
43.4 
46.4 
49.4 
41.9 
47.9 
532 

52.1 

38.4 
49.7 
47.8 



485 
50.3 
51 



Nutritive 
ratio 



16.9 

17.1 
8.6 

22.7 



21.0 

23.2 

7.6 

12.7 

115.4 
16.3 
11.9 

13.9 

27.1 

8.3 

10.0 

11.1 

22.4 
10.7 
9.3 
9.5 
17.2 
110 
10.0 

17.6 

24.6 

17.4 

7.5 

l.i.2 

!)." 
13.2 



(ertilizing consllluents 
in 1000 lbs. 



Ntro- 
sen 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid 


PDtasii 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


10.7 


3 3 


8.9 


7.7 
14.7 


2.5 
4.0 


6.6 
11.8 


9.4 


4.5 


12.9 


9.1 


4.0 


11.5 


6.2 


2.9 


8.3 


15.7 






11.2 






2.2 
10.6 
14.2 


4.2 


11.3 


10.4 

8.2 

13.3 


5.5 


25.3 



13.3 

12.8 
19.2 
ll.S 
13.4 
12.6 
7.4 
12.S 
ll.S 

ll.S 

6.2 

14.6 

0.0 
15.7 

10.1 



3.6 
3.5 



8.0 
4.0 



4.4 



3.1 13.0 



418 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABKIDGED 

Table III. Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents — continued. 



Fsadine stuff 



Dry Rougitaoe — con, 
Hay and cured forage 

from grasses and 

cereals — con. 

Timothy hay, cut at 

late hloom 

Timothy rowen liay * 
Wheat iiay * 

Hay from the legumes 

Alfalfa, all analyses 
Alfalfa, hefore 

bloom * 

Alfalfa, in bloom . . . 
Alfalfa, in seed * . . . 
Alfalfa meal * 

Alfalfa leaves * .... 

Beggarweed * 

Clover, alsike 

Clover, bur 

Clover, crimscm, or 
scarlet 

Clover, mammoth 
red * 

Clover, red, all 
analyses 

Clover, red, in bloom 

Clover, red, after 
bloom * 

Clover and mixed 

grasses 

Clover and timothy . 
Clover, sweet, wliite . 

Clover, white 

Clover rowen 

Cowpca 

Lespedeza, or Japan 
clover * 

Pea, field 

Peas and oats 

Peanut vine, with 
nuts 

Peanut vine, without 
nuts 

Soybean hay 

Velvet bean * 



Total div 
matter in 
100 lbs. 



T.b'= 



851 
849 
91 9 



91.4 

93 8 
925 
89.6 
91 2 

934 
909 
87.7 
930 

89.4 



81.3 

87.1 
861 

77.9 



89.9 
87.8 
91,4 
91.9 
85.2 
90.3 



88.2 
88.9 
83.4 

92.2 

785 
91.4 
92.8 



Digestible nutnents In 100 lbs. 



Crude Carbo- 
protein hydrates 



Fat 



T.bs 


l-bs. 


2,4 
8.2 

4.0 


39 

35 8 

4S.5 


10.6 


39.0 


154 

105 

85 

10.2 


35.5 
3S.5 
39,2 
3S.7 


158 

11 6 

7.9 

156 


35 1 
3G2 
3G.9 
42.8 


9.7 


3G.S 


6.4 


37.2 


7.6 
8.1 


39,3 

38,8 


68 


34,1 


47 
40 
109 
11.8 
10.7 
13.1 


39.9 
39.7 
38.2 
43.3 
33.1 
33.7 


8.6 

12.2 

8.3 


41.1 
40.1 
37.1 


9.6 


39.6 


66 

117 
12,0 


37.0 
39.2 
40.3 



Lbs. 



14 

2.1 

8 



0.9 

1.6 

0.7 
1.0 
0.8 

1.3 
0.7 
1.1 

0.2 

1.0 



1.8 
IS 

2.6 



1.3 

1.1 
0.7 
1,5 
2.2 
1.0 



1.1 
1.9 
1.5 

8.3 

3.0 
1.2 
1,4 



Total 



Lbs. 



44 6 
48,7 
54,3 



51.6 

54.5 
50.6 
49.9 
50.7 

53.8 
49.4 
47.3 
58.8 

48.7 



47.6 

509 
50.9 

46.7 



47.5 
46.2 
50.7 
58.5 
48.8 
49.0 

52.2 
56.6 
48.8 

67.9 

50.4 
53.6 
55.5 



Nutntive 
ratio 



17.6 

4.9 

12.6 



3.9 

2.5 

3.8 
4.9 
4.0 

24 

5.0 
2.8 

4.0 



6.4 

5.7 
5.3 

5.9 



9.1 
10.6 
3.7 
4.0 
3.6 
2.7 



5,1 
3.6 
4.9 

6.1 

6.6 
3.6 
3.6 



Fertilizing constituents 
m 1000 lbs. 



Nitro- 
eeo 



Lbs. 



s.s 

23.0 
9,9 



23.8 

35.2 
24.0 
19.5 
22.9 

36,0 
24.6 
20.5 
30.7 

22.6 



17.3 

20.5 
21,0 

18.6 



15.8 
13.8 
23.2 
25.9 
26.4 
30.9 

19.4 
24.2 
18.2 

21.3 

14.6 
25,6 
26.2 



Phos- 
phoiic 
acid 



Lbs. I..bs 



5,4 



94 

7,0 



6,1 



63 

3.9 

5.7 

4.0 



4,1 
4.7 
6,6 
5.2 

9 6 



10.3 
6.7 
6,6 



2.2 
68 
5.5 



APPENDIX 419 

Table III. Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents — continued. 



Fsidini stuff 



Dry Roughage — con. 
Hay from the leg- 
umes — con. 

Vetch, common 

Vetch, hairy 

Vetch and oats 

Vetch and wheat .... 

Straw and chaff 

Barley straw 

Bean straw * 

Buckwheat straw * . . 

Cowpea straw * 

Crimson clover .straw * 
Flax shives 

Millet straw * 

Oat chaff 

Oat straw 

Rice straw 

Rye straw 

Soybean straw 

Wheat chaff 

Wheat straw 

Fresh Green 

Roughage 

Green forage from 
grasses and cereals 

Barley fodder 

Bermuda grass * . . . . 

Bluegrass, Kentucky 

Brome grass smooth * 

Buckwheat, Japan- 
ese * 

Corn fodder, all an- 
alyses * 

Corn fodder, dent, all 
analyses 

Corn fodder, dent, in 
tassel 

Corn fodder, dent, in 
milk 

Corn fodder, dent, 
dough to glazing * 

Corn fodder, dent, 
kernels glazed .... 

Corn fodder, dent, 
kernels ripe 



Total diy 
(natter in 
100 llB. 



Dieestible nutrients m 100 lbs. 



Gruda 
prstein 



92.9 
87.7 
84.3 
85.0 



85.8 
89.5 
90.1 
91.5 
87.7 
928 

858 
91.8 
88.5 
925 
92 9 
88.1 
85.6 
91,6 



23.2 
33.2 
31.6 
33.0 

36.6 



21.9 
23.1 
14.9 
19.9 
25.1 
26.2 
34.8 



Lb.s. 



11.6 

15.7 

6,9 

10.7 



0.9 
3.6 
4.2 
3.4 
3.8 
5.8 

1.0 
2.2 
1.0 
0.9 
07 
2.8 
1,1 
0.7 



2.3 
1.4 
2.3 
2.9 

22 



1.0 
1.0 
1.1 
1.0 
1.3 
1.1 
1.5 



l^rbo- 
hydrates 



Lbs. 



42.8 
37.1 
37.0 
41.1 



40.2 
42.4 
26.3 
39.1 
36.5 
25.2 

41.7 
34.3 
42.6 
37.8 
39,6 
38.5 
25.7 
35.1 



11.5 
17.0 
14.8 
15.0 

17.4 



12.8 
13.7 
8.2 
12.1 
15.4 
15.8 
21.1 



Fat 



Lbs. 



1.6 
1.9 
1.4 
1.3 



0.6 
0.7 
1.2 
0.7 
0.9 
3.0 

O.G 
1.2 
0.9 
0.3 
0.4 
1,0 
0.6 
0.5 



0.4 
0.5 
0.6 
0.2 

0.5 



0.4 
0.4 
0.3 
0.5 
0.7 
0.4 
0.8 



Total 



Lbs. 



58.0 
57.1 
47.1 
54.7 



42.5 
47.6 
33.2 
44.1 
42.3 
37.8 

44.1 
39,2 
45.6 
39.4 
41.2 
43 5 
282 
369 



14.7 
19.5 
18.5 
18.3 

207 



14.7 
15.6 
10,0 
14.2 
18,3 
17.8 
24.4 



Nutritive 
latio 



4.0 
2.G 

5.8 
4.1 



46.2 
12.2 

6.9 
12.0 
10.1 

5.5 

43.1 
1G.8 
44.6 
42.8 
579 
14.5 
24.6 
51.7 



5.4 

12.9 

7.0 

5.3 

8.4 



13.7 
14.6 
8.1 
13.2 
13.1 
15.2 
15.3 



Fertilizing constituenb 
in 1000 Ibi 



Nitro- 
gen 



Lbs. 



27.7 
31.8 
17.0 
23.2 



5.6 
11.7 

8.3 
10.9 
12.0 
11.5 

5.8 
9.4 
5.8 
G.2 
4.8 
9.0 
6.7 
5.0 



5.3 

4.8 
6.G 
G.7 

7.4 



3.0 
3.0 
2,C 
2.6 
3.4 
3.2 
4.3 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid 



Lbs. 



7.9 
10.3 

CO 



1.8 
4.2 
1.3 



1.9 

1.8 
1.3 
2,1 
1.4 
2.8 
1.2 
4.0 
1,3 



1.3 
1.5 
1.9 

2.0 

2,0 



1.1 
1.1 



420 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



TABI E III. DlCKSTIRLI 


; NUTRIE.NTS 


AND 1 


"ertimzing C 


;;ONSTITUENTS- 


-continued. 












1 




fertilizing constituents 




Total dry 
matter in 
lUO lbs. 


DiEestibIs nutrients in 100 IIk. 


Nutritiva 
raiiQ 


In 1000 lbs. 




Fssding stuff 


Nifro- 
sen 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid 






Crude 
proiein 


Cariio- 
hydrates 


Fat 


Total 


Potash 


Fresh Green 


hhs. 


Ll)s. 


Ll)s. 


Ll)s, 


Lbs. 


,: 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lb3. 


ROUOIIAGF — con 




















Green forage, etc. — con. 




















Corn fodder, Hint, all 




















analyses 


20.7 


1.0 


12.4 


0,4 


14.3 


i:;,3 


3.0 


1.0 


4.0 


Sweet corn fodder. 




roasting ears or 




















later 


20.3 


1.2 


12.0 


04 


14.1 


10.8 


3.0 


0.9 


3.8 


Corn fodder, sweet, 




ears removed * ... 


21.5 


1.0 


13.1 


3 


14.8 


13.8 


2G 






Crab grass * 


30.9 


1.3 


14.2 


0.5 


16.6 


11.8 


4.3 


2.2 


10.8 


Foxtail, or wild 




















barley * 


35.7 


2.4 


1.5.9 


07 


19.9 


7.3 


7.8 






Jolinson grass * .... 


29.1 


1.2 


14.7 


0.5 


17.0 


132 


4.0 






Kafir fodder 


23.6 


1.1 


12.4 


0.4 


14.4 


12.1 


3.8 


V.G 


5.1 


INIillet, barnyard .... 


21.3 


1.0 


12.1 


04 


14.0 


13.0 


2.7 


1.4 


6.2 


]\Iillet, common, or 




















?Iungarian 


27.6 


1.9 


14,8 


O.G 


18.1 


8.5 


4.C 


1.2 


C.9 


Millet, pearl, or cat- 




















tail * 


18.7 
22.7 


1.1 
08 


10.4 
12.7 


0.2 
0.3 


11.9 
14.2 


9 8 
1G.8 


2.9 

2.9 


1.9 
1.7 


103 


T\Iilo fodder* 


7.5 


Mixed grasses, imma- 




















ture 


29.7 


3.6 


14.5 


0,9 


201 


4.G 


8.2 


2.1 


7.9 


]\Iixed grasses, at bay- 




ing stage 


30.8 


1.7 


15.2 


00 


183 


9,8 


4.8 


2.5 


G4 


Oat fodder 


26.1 


2.3 


11.8 


0,8 


15.9 


5.9 


5.1 


1.8 


7.7 


Oat fodder, 8 in. 




hio-h* 


13.0 
29.2 


34 
1.7 


41 
13.0 


0.5 
0,0 


8.6 

16.1 


1.5 
8.5 


7.8 
4.0 


2.1 




ji iji^*«. 

Orchard grass 


95 


Para grass * 


27.2 


08 


14.0 


0.3 


155 


18.4 


2.7 






Red top 


393 
21.3 


1.9 
2.1 


20.0 
12.2 


OG 
0,5 


23.3 
15.4 


11,3 
G,3 


5,0 
4.2 


2 3 
1.5 


8.4 


Rye fodder 


4.9 


Sweet sorghum fodder 


24.9 


07 


14.1 


O.G 


16.2 


22,1 


2.4 


1,1 


41 


Teosinte * 


21 3 
37.5 


1.0 
15 


11,9 
19.3 


03 
O.G 


13,6 
22.2 


12.G 
13.8 


2.7 
5,0 


2,0 
1.8 


9.3 


Timothy 


6.7 


Wheat fodder * 


27.4 


2.8 


15.1 


O.G 


19.3 


5.9 


5.8 


1.9 


7.2 


(Irrrn legumes 




















Alfalfa, all analyses . 


253 


3.3 


10.4 


0.4 


14.6 


3.4 


7.2 


15 


G.7 


Alfalfa, before bloom * 


199 


3.5 


7.5 


0,3 


11.7 


2.3 


7.5 






Alfalfa, in bloom * . 


25.9 


3.3 


10.8 


0.3 


14.8 


3^5 


7,0 






Alfalfa, after bloom * 


29.8 


2 1 


13.5 


0.2 


16.0 


6.G 


4.6 


1.7 


7.9 


Beggarweed * 


27.1 


3.1 


11.6 


0,2 


15.1 


3.9 


6.7 


2.7 


5.7 


Clover, alsike * 


24,3 


2.7 


11,8 


0.4 


15.4 


4.7 


6.6 


1.8 


9.2 


Clover, bur * 


20 8 


34 


8.2 


1,1 


14,1 


3.1 


8.2 






Clover, crimson 


17.4 


2.3 


8.1 


0.4 


11.3 


3.9 


48 


2.0 


4.1 


Clover, mammoth 




















red * 


25.1 


2.7 


12.4 


0.3 


15.8 


4,9 


6,4 











APPENDIX 



421 



Tablk III. Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents — continued. 



Feedine stuff 



Total dry 
matter in 
100 lbs. 



Dieestbla nutrients in 100 Ibi 



Fresh Green 
Roughage — con. 

Green legumes — con. 

Clover, red 

Clover and mixed 
grasses * 

Clover, sweet * .... 

Clover, white * .... 

Cowpeas 

Cowpeas and corn * 

Cowpeas and sor- 
ghum * 

Horse bean * 

Peas, field, Canada . 

Peas and oats 

Kudzu vine * 

Lespedeza or Japan 

clover * 

Serradella * 

Soybeans 

Soybeans and corn * 
Soybeans and kafir ^ 

Velvet bean * 

Vetch, common 

Vetch, hairy 

Vetch and oats 

Vetch and wheat .' . . . 

Roots and tubers 

Artichokes * 

Beet, common * 

Beet, sugar 

Carrot 

Cassava * 

Chufa* 

flange] 

Parsnip * 

Potato 

Rutabaga 

Sweet potato * 

Turnip 

Miscellaneous green 
forages 

Apple * 

Apple pomace * 



Crudt 
protein 



Lbs. 



26.2 

27.3 
24.4 
21.8 
16.3 
20.0 

18.7 

17.6 
16.6 
22.6 
30.6 

36.6 
20.2 

23.6 
23.8 
17.1 
17.9 
204 
18.1 
26.5 
22.7 



20.5 
130 
16.4 
117 
32.6 
20.5 

9.4 
16.6 
21.2 
10.9 
31.2 

9.5 



18.2 
23.3 



Lbs. 



2.7 

2.2 
3.3 
3.1 
2.3 
1.3 

0.7 

2.8 
29 

2.4 
4.2 

4.5 
2.1 

3.2 
1.7 
0.9 
2.7 
27 
3.5 
2.8 
2.4 



1 
09 
1.2 
09 
0.6 
0.4 

08 
1.3 
1.1 
1.0 
0.9 
1.0 



04 
1.2 



Carin- 
hydrates 



Lbs. 



13.0 

14.1 

10.3 

9.6 

8.0 

11.4 

10.0 

7.4 

7.1 

10.6 

13.9 

17.1 

8,9 

10.2 

13.G 

7.9 

7.2 

8.9 

8.1 

13.3 

12.2 



14.6 
9.1 

12.6 
8.6 

26.4 

10.2 

6.4 
12.5 
15.8 

7.7 

24.2 

6.0 



15.6 
15.6 



Fat 



Lbs. 



O.G 

0.6 
0.3 
0.5 
0.3 
0.3 

0.3 

0.3 
0.3 
0.6 
0.5 

0.6 
0.5 

0.5 
06 
0.4 
0.4 
0.3 
0.4 
0.4 
0.3 



0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.2 
0.2 
3.3 

01 
0.4 
0.1 
0.3 
0.3 
0.2 



0.2 
08 



Total 



Nutritive 
ratio 



Lbs. 



17.1 

17.7 
14.3 
13.8 
11.0 
13.4 

11.4 

10.9 
107 
14.4 
19.2 

23.0 
12.1 

14.5 
167 
9.7 
10,8 
12.3 
12.5 
17.0 
15.3 



15.8 
10.2 
14.0 
9.9 
27.4 
18.0 

7.4 
14.7 
17.1 

94 
25.8 

7.4 



16.4 
18.6 



5.3 

7.0 
3.3 
3.5 
38 
9.3 

15.3 

2.9 
2.7 
5.0 
3.6 

4.1 
4.8 

3.5 
8.8 
9.8 
3.0 
36 
2.6 
5.1 
5.4 



14.8 
10.3 
10.7 
10.0 
44.7 
44.0 

8.2 
10 3 
14.5 

8.4 
27.7 

6.4 



40.0 
14.5 



FertilizioE constituents 
in 1000 lbs. 



Nitro- 
gen 



Lbs. 



6.6 

4.8 
7.0 
7.4 
4.8 
3.4 

2.4 

5.8 
5.8 
5.1 



10 7 
4.6 

6.6 
4.3 
3.2 
5.6 
6.1 
6.7 
6.1 
5.3 



3.2 
2.6 
2.6 
1.9 
1.8 
1.1 

2.2 
2.7 
3,5 
1.9 
2.9 
2.2 



08 
2.6 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid 



Lbs. 



1 *> 



1.3 
l.S 
1.4 



1.2 
1.1 
1.7 



1.8 
1.1 

1.3 
1.6 
1.4 
1.6 



1.4 
1.0 
0.8 
1.1 
1.0 



0.4 
1.3 
1.2 
1.2 
0.9 
1.3 



0.3 
0.6 



422 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



Table III. Digestible Nutrients 


AND 


Fertil 


IZING 


CONSTITUEXTS- 


— continued. 




Total dry 
matter in 
too lbs. 


Digestible nutnents in UO lbs. 


Nutntive 
ratio 


Fertilizing constituents 
in 1000 lbs. 


' Fesdins stuff 


Nitro- 
gen 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid 




Crude 
protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


Total 


PoUsh 


Fresh Green 
RoroHAGE — con. 

Miscellaneous green 

forages — eon. 
Cabbage 


Lbs. 

8.9 

104 
16.5 

11.3 
9.0 
8.3 
16.7 
23.3 
11.6 
11.4 

24.6 
20.6 
25.0 
27.8 
26.3 
21.0 

19.6 
28.6 
24.7 
22.0 
27.9 
22.4 

30.8 
31.6 
28.3 
27.5 
23.2 
27.2 
22.8 

32.3 
27.1 
23.0 
10.0 
30.1 
29.8 


Lbs. 

1.9 

0.4 
0.4 

1.9 
1.7 
1.1 
2.6 
2.8 
1.2 
1.7 

1.2 
0.9 
2.0 
1.3 
1.1 
1.0 

0.5 
2.1 
1.6 
1.8 
2.8 
0.6 

0.8 
1.6 
1.5 
2.8 
1.6 
2.4 
0.6 

0.9 
2.6 
2.1 
0.8 
2.0 
5.2 


Lbs. 

5.6 

5.8 
8.9 

4.7 
5.6 
4.5 
lO.O 
5.9 
6.3 
5.4 

7.8 
15.0 
12.0 

9.5 
15.0 
11.4 

9.9 
15.9 
13.8 
10.1 
13.1 
11.2 

15.3 
15.3 
13.8 
12.6 
11.6 
16.1 
11.6 

16.6 
11.0 
10.0 
6.5 
15.2 
11.1 


Lbs. 

0.2 

0.1 
0.2 

0.3 
0.1 
0.5 
0.3 
0.2 
0.1 
0.1 

0.6 
0.6 
0.8 
0.5 
0.7 
0.4 

0.4 
0.7 
0.8 
0.6 
0.9 
0.3 

0.6 
0.8 
0.9 
1.0 
0.8 
0.5 
0.5 

0.6 
0.7 
0.4 
0.3 
0.8 
1.9 


Lbs. 

7.9 

6.4 
9.7 

7.3 
75 
6.7 
13.3 
91 
77 
7.3 

10.4 
17.3 
15.8 
11.9 
17.7 
13.3 

11.3 
19.6 
17.2 
13.3 
17.9 
12.5 

17.5 
18.7 
17.3 
17.6 
150 
196 
133 

18.9 
15.2 
13.0 
8.0 
19.0 
20.6 


1: 

3.2 

15.0 
23.2 

2.8 
3.4 
5.1 
4.1 
2.2 
5.4 
3.3 

7.7 

18.2 

6.9 

8.2 

15.1 

12.3 

21.6 
8.3 
9.8 
6.4 

5.4 
19.8 

20.9 

10.7 

10.5 

5.3 

8.4 

7.2 

21.2 

20.0 
4.8 
5.2 
9.0 
8.5 
3.0 


Lbs. 

3.5 

1.4 
1.3 

38 
3.2 
2.2 
4.6 
5.9 
3.0 
4.2 

5.6 
2.6 
4.2 
5.9 
3.4 
3.0 

2.2 
5.3 
4.0 
5.1 
6.1 
2.4 

2,9 
4.5 
3.2 
6.1 
4.5 
4.8 
2.4 

3.8 
6.2 
4.5 
2.4 
5.6 
10.2 


Lbs. 

0.7 

0.3 
0.7 

0.9 
1.1 
3.4 
1.2 
1.0 

0.8 

1.6 
1.2 

1.6 
1.8 
2.9 

1.7 

1.7 
1.5 

1.7 


Lbs. 
2.9 


Cactus, cane, entire 
plant "" 


2.1 


Cactus, prickly pear . 
Kale 


4.3 


Kohlrabi * 




Pumpkin, field 

Rape 

Saltbush, Australian * 
Sugar beet leaves * . . 
Sugar beet tops * . . . 

Silage 
Alfalfa * 


3.2 
3.9 
14.1 
5.5 
6.4 


Apple pomace * 

Barley * 


2.2 


Clover 




Corn, well matured . 
Corn, immature 

Corn, from field-cured 
stover * 


4.4 
3.5 


Corn and clover * ... 
Corn and soybean . . . 
Cowpea 


4.5 
3.8 


Field pea * 


2.3 


Japanese cane * 

Kafir 




Millet * 




Oat * 




Oat and pea 

Pea-cannery refuse * . 
Rve * 


7.0 
6 9 


Sorghum 


1.9 


Sorghum and cow- 
pea * 






7.1 


Sugar beet leaves * . . 
Sugar beet pulp * . . 
Vetch 




Wet brewers' grains * 





Al'PK.NDlX 



42;j 



Table IV. Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Standards for Farm -Animals 

It lias been pointed out in Ciia[)ler \ II that we now liave more aeeiirate data 
on the nutrient requirements of various elasses of animals than were possessed 
by scientists when the \\ oUr-Leliniann Feeding IStandards were drawn u[). .\s 
these standards are out-of-date and do not meet present conditions, they should 
nut be used in computiiijf rations htr the actual feeding of stock. Instead one 
of the modern standards shoukl lie cniphjycd, such as tlie Moriison, or modified 
W'olll'-Lehmann standards. gi\en in Table \', which are based upon recent experi- 
mental A\()rk and uj)()n the experiences of practical stock feeders. The Wolff- 
Lehmann Standards are here given, however, on account of their historical 
importance. 

The standards for milch cows are given for the middle of the lactation period 
with animals yielding milk of average composition. The standards for growing 
animals contemplate only a moderate amount of exercise; if much is taken, add 
15 per ot. — mostly non-nitrogenous nutrients — to the ration. If no exercise is 
taken, deduct 15 per ct. from the standard. The standards are for animals of 
normal size. Those of small breeds will require somewhat more nutrients, 
amounting in some cases to 0.3 of a pound of nitrogenous and 1.5 pounds of non- 
nitrogenous digestible nutrients daily for 1,000 pounds of live weight of animals. 



Animal 



Per day per 1,000 lbs. live weight 



Dry 

matter 



Digestible nutrients 



Crude 
protein 



Carbo 

hy- 
drates 



Fat 



Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 



1. Oxen 

At rest in stall 

At light work 

At medium work 

At heavy work 

2. Fattening cattle 

First period 

Second period 

Third period 

3. Milch cows, yielding daily 

11.0 pounds of milk . . . . 
16.6 pounds of milk . . . . 
22.0 pounds of milk . . . . 
27.5 pounds of milk . , . . 

4. Sheep 

Coarse wool 

Fine wool 

5. Breeding eices 

With lambs 

6. Fattening sheep 

First period 

Second period 

7. Horses 

Light work 

^Medium work 

Heavy work 



Lbs. 

IS 
22 
25 

28 

?,0 
.10 

26 



27 
20 
32 

20 
23 

25 

30 

28 

20 
24 
26 



Lbs. 

0.7 
1.4 
20 

2.8 

2.5 
3.0 
2.7 

1.6 
2.0 
2,5 
33 

1.2 
1.5 

2.9 

3.0 
3.5 

1.5 

2.0 



Lbs. 

80 
100 
11.5 
13.0 

15 
14.5 
15.0 

10.0 
110 
13.0 
13.0 

10.5 
12.0 

15.0 

15.0 
14.5 

9.5 
11.0 
13 3 



Lbs. 

0.1 
0.3 
0.5 

0.8 

5 
07 
07 

0.3 
04 
0.5 

0.8 

0.2 
0.3 

0.5 

0.5 
0.6 

0.4 
0.6 
08 



1: 

11 8 
77 
6.5 
5.3 

65 

5 4 
6.2 

6 7 
6.0 
5.7 
4.5 

9.1 

8.5 

5.6 

54 
4.5 

70 

6.2 
60 



424 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABlflDUED 

Table IV. • Wolff-Lehmaxn Feedixq Standards for Farm Animals — continued. 



Animal 



8. Brood sous 

9. Fattening stcine 

First period 

Second period 

Third period 

10. Groicing cattle, dairy breeds 

Age in Av. live wt. 

months per head, lbs. 

2- 3 150 

3- (') 300 

G-12 500 

12-13 700 

18-24 900 

11. Groicing cattle, beef breeds 

2- 3 160 

3- 6 330 

6-12 550 

12-18 750 

18-24 950. . . 

12. Growing sheep, icool breeds 

4-6 60 

6-8 75 . . . 

8-11 80 

11-15 00 .. 

15-20 100 

13. Groicing sheep, mutton breeds 

4-6 60. .. 

6-8 80.... 

8-11 100... 

11-15 120... 

15-20 150.. .. 

/.}. Grouing swine, breeding stock 

2-3 1 50 

3- 5 100.. .. 

5- 6 120... 

6- 8 200.. . 

8-12 250.... 

15. Groicing, fattening swine 

2-3 50. ... 

3- 5 100.... 

5- 6 1.50... 

6- 8 200.... 

9-12 300.... 



Per day per 1.000 lbs. live weight 



Dry 
matter 



Lbs. 



36 
32 



23 
24 

27 
26 
26 

23 
24 
25 
24 
24 



25 
23 



26 
26 
24 
23 



44 
35 
32 
28 
25 

44 
35 
33 
30 
26 



Disestible nutrients 



Crude 
protein 



Lbs. 



4 5 
4 

2.7 



40 
3 

2 
1 8 

1 5 

4.2 

3 5 

2 5 
2.0 

1 8 

34 

2.8 

2 1 
IS 
1.5 

4 4 
3.5 

3 
2 2 

2 

7.6 

4 S 

3 7 

2 8 
2.1 

7.6 
50 

4 3 

3 6 
30 



Carbo 

hv- 
drate.s 



Lbs. 
15 5 



25 
24 
ISO 



130 
12.8 
12.5 

12 5 
12.0 

13 
12.8 
13.2 

12 5 
12.0 

15.4 

13 8 
115 
11.2 
10.8 

15.5 
15.0 
14.3 
12 6 
12.0 

2S.0 
22.5 

21 3 
18.7 
15.3 

280 
23 1 

22 3 
20.5 
18.3 



Fat 

l.1>s. 
0,4 



0.7 
5 
0.4 



20 
10 
05 
0.4 
0.3 

20 
1 5 
07 
5 
0.4 

07 
06 
0.5 
4 
0.3 

00 
0.7 
0.5 
5 
0.4 

1.0 
07 
4 
0.3 
2 

10 
08 
0.6 
04 
0.3 



APPENDIX 



425 



Table V. jMorkison Feeding Standards for Farm Animals 

llecent investigations of tlic Kxpcrinient Stations of this and other countries 
have shown that tiie original Woltf-Lehmann Standards are inaccurate in many 
instances. Therefore, the following standards ha\e been prepared to provide a 
more accinate means of coniputing rations sulistantiallr according to the WolH- 
Lehmann method. The sources of the recommendations given for the. various 
classes of animals are shown in Chapter \'1I and the method of computing ra- 
tions in accordance with these standards is fully explained in t'hajitcrs Nil and 
N'lll. -Moditied staiulards are not presented for growing dairy cattle, growing 
sheej). '^nd giowing pigs (breeding stock), on account of the lack of suHicieiit data. 

In most instances a minimum and a maximum are indicated for dry matter, 
digestible crude protein, and total digestible nutrients. As has been pointed out 
in the text, when ]irotein-rich feeds are cheaper than carbonaceous feeds, somewhat 
more digestible crude protein may be supjjlied than is stated in the standards. 
This will narrow the luitritivc ratio beyond the limits heie indicated. On the 
other hand, the amount of ]irotein should not fall much below the lower amount 
indicated. Where a range is indicated in total digestible nutrients, feeding 
enough concentrates to bring the total digestible nutrients up to the higher 
figure will generally cause greater production. However, with feeds high in 
price, it may not be most proiitable. (See Pages 112-3.) 

Before computing rations for live stock, it is important that the general direc- 
tions and hints on Pages 8G-00 and 103-115 be carefuHv studied. 







Digestible cnule 


Total (Hsestibic 






protein 


nutrients 






Lbs. 


Lbs. 


1. Dairi/ coirs 








For maintenance of 1.000-lb. cow 


0.700 


7.025 


To filJnirancf (or inaivfnnnire add: 






For each lb. 


of 2.5 per ct. milk 


0.045-0.053 


0.230-0.250 


For each lb. 


of 3.0 ])er ct. milk 


0.047-0.057 


■ 0.257 -0.2S(i 


For each lb. 


of 3.5 per ct. milk 


0.040-0.001 


0.284-0.310 


For each lb 


of 4.0 per ct. milk 


0.054-0.005 


0.3 i 1-0. .340 


For each lb. 


of 4.5 |)er ct. milk 


0.057-O.OGO 


0.338-0.370 


For each lb. 


of 5.0 per ct. milk 


0.0(10-0.073 


0.3G2-0.402 


For each lb. 


of 5.5 per ct. milk 


0.(t«4-().()77 


0.385-0.42S 


For each lb. 


of 0.0 per ct. milk 


0.()()7-0.0Sl 


0.40n-0.4.")4 


For each lb 


of (i.5 per ct. milk 


0.072-0. 085 
0.074-0.08!) 


0.434-0 482 


For each lb. 


of 7.0 per ct. milk 


0.454-0.505 



The amount of dry matter to be fed daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight to dairy 
cows may range from 15.0 lbs. or even less with dry cows to 30.0 lbs. with cows 
yielding 2.0 lbs. of butter fat per head daily. Cows producing 1.0 lb. of fat per 
head daily should receive about 21.0 to 25.0 lbs. of dry matter per 1,000 lbs. 
live weight. The nutritive ratio may readily be found by computation; for 
example, a 1,200-lb. <^;ow yielding daily 30.0 lbs. of 3.5 per ct. milk will require for 
maintenance and production 2.31 to 2.07 lbs. digestible cnule protein and 18.03 to 
18.90 lbs. total digestible nutrients. The nutritive ratio should hence not be 
wider than 1:0.1 to 1 :7.2. 

The standards given under Division 2 for growing, fattening steers weighing 
1,000 to 1,200 lbs. are for animals being finished on a moderate allowance of 
concentrates. It will be noted that the anunuit of total digestible nutrients i.s 
considerably lower than the aniotuit indicated under Division 3 for fattening 
2-year-old steers on full feed. As has been jiointed out in the text, cattle fed a 
small allowance of concentrates will not make maxinuun gains. However, under 
certain conditions this system may return the most profit. 



426 FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 

Tauli; V. MoRKisoN Feeding Standards — continued. 



Animal 



Per day per 1,000 lbs. live weight 



Dry 

matter 



Digestible 
crude 
protein 



Total 
digestible 
nutrients 



Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 



/I. Growing, fattening steers 

Weight 100 lbs 

Weight 150 lbs 

Weiglit 200 lbs 

Weight 250 lbs 

Weight 300 lbs 

Weight 350 lbs 

Weight 400 lbs 

Weight 450 lbs 

Weight 500 lbs 

Weight 550 lbs 

Weight 600 lbs 

Weight 700 lbs 

Weight 800 lbs 

Weight 900 lbs 

Weight 1,000 lbs 

Weight 1,100 lbs 

Weight 1,200 lbs. 

3. Fattening 2-year-old steers 
on full feed 

First 50-60 days 

Second 50-60 davs 

Third 50-60 days 

j}. Ox at rest in stall 

5. ^Yintering beef coivs in ealf 

6. Horses 

Idle 

At light work 

At medium work 

At Iieavy work 

7. Brood mares siickliiig foals, 

but not at work 

8. Growing colts, over 6 

months 

9. Fattening lambs 

Weight 50-70 lbs 

Weight 70-90 lbs 

Weight 90-110 lbs 

10. Sheep, maintaining, mature 

Coarse wool 

Fine wool 

11. Breeding ewes, with lambs 



Lbs. 

14.1 
20.7 
24.0 
25.6 
26.7 
25.3 
24.3 
24.1 
23.9 
23.6 
23.2 
22!6 
21.4 
20.2 
19.7 
18.1 
17.3 



22.0-25.0 
21.0-24.0 
18.0-22.0 

13.0-21.0 

14.0-25.0 



13.0-18.0 
ir).i)-2(i.() 
1(5.0-21.0 
18.0-22.0 



15.0-22.0 



18.0-22.0 



27.0-30.0 
28.0-31.0 
27.0-31.0 



18.0-23.0 
20.0-2G.0 
23.0-27.0 



Lbs. 

3.2 
3.3 
5.4 
3.0 
2.7 
2.4 
2.2 
2.1 
2.1 
2.0 
2.0 
2.0 
2.0 
2.0 
1.8 
1.6 
1.5 



2.0 2.3 
1.9-2.3 
1.8-2.1 

0.6-0.8 

0.7-0.9 



0.8-1.0 
1.0-1 2 
1.2-1.5 
1.5-1.8 



1.2-1.5 



1.6-1.8 



2.7-3.0 
2.5-2.8 
2.3-2.5 



1.1-1.3 
1.4-l.G 
2.6-2.9 



Lbs. 

16.6 
17.2 
17.4 
17.7 
17.9 
16.8 
15.8 
16.1 
15.8 
15.6 
15.4 
14.8 
14.3 
13.6 
13.5 
12.6 
12.3 



18.0-20.0 
17.0-19.5 
16.0-18.5 

8.4-10.4 

9.0-12.0 



7.0- 9.0 

9.0-11.0 

11.0-13.0 

13.0-15.0 



9.0-12.0 



11.0-13.0 



19.0-22.0 
20.0-23.0 
19.0-23.0 



11.0-13.0 
12.0-14.0 
18.0-20.0 



1: 

4.2 

4.2 
4.1 
4.9 
5.6 
6.0 
6.2 
6.7 
6.5 
6.6 
6.7 
6.4 
6.2 
5.8 
6.5 
6.9 
7.2 



7.0- 7.8 
7.0- 7.8 
7.0- 7.8 

10.0-16.0 

10.0-15.0 

8.0- 9.0 

8.0- 8.5 

7.8- 8.3 

7.6- 8.1 

6.5- 7.5 

6.0- 7.0 



6.0- 6.7 
6.7- 7.2 
7.0- 8.0 



8.0- 9.1 

7.5- 8.5 

5.6- 6.5 



APPENDIX 



427 



Table V. ^roRRisox Fekdinc; SxANDARns — rovtiviied. 





Per day 


per 1,000 lbs. 1 


ve weight 


Nutri- 
tive 


Animal 


Drv 


Digestible 


Total 




matter 


crude 
protein 


digestible 
nutrients 


ratio 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


1: 


12. Fattening pigs 










Weight 30-50 lbs 


4G 2-51.0 


7.8-8.5 


410-45 4 


4.0- 4.5 


Weight 50-100 lbs 


37.0-40.8 


5.5-6.0 


32.9-36 4 


5 0- 5.6 


Weight 100-150 lbs 


32.4-35.8 


4.4-4.9 


28.8-319 


5.5- 6.2 


Weight 150-200 lbs 


20 0-32.0 


3 5-3.n 


25.8-28.5 


6 2- 7.0 


Weisht 200-250 lbs 


25 5-28.1 


3 0-3 4 


22.7-25.0 


6 5- 7 3 


Weight 250-300 lbs 


224-24.8 


2.6-2.0 


20.0-22.0 


6.7- 7.5 


13. Brood sows, with j)igs . . 


20 0-24.0 


2.4-2.7 


18.0-21.0 


6 0- 7.0 



For the convenience of those wishing to compute rations for poultry, the Wheeler 
Standards, as given in Jordan's The Feeding of Animals, have been converted 
into the same terms as arc used in the Morrison Standards and are here in- 
cluded. Because of the small size of poultry, these standards give the require- 
ments per 100 lbs. live weight rather than per 1,000 lbs. live weight. 



11. Wheeler (Standards for poultry 
For maintenance 

Capons of 9 to 12 lbs wt. . . 

Hens of 5 to 7 lbs wt 

Hens of 3 to 5 lbs. wt 

For hens in full laying 

Hens of 5 to 8 lbs. wt 

Hens of 3 to 5 lbs. wt 

For chicks 

First 2 weeks 

From 2 to 4 weeks of age . . 
From 4 to 6 weeks of age . . 
From 6 to 8 weeks of age . . 
From 8 to 10 weeks of age . 
From 10 to 12 weeks of age 

For ducklings 

First 2 weeks 

From 2 to 4 weeks of age . . 
From 4 to 6 weeks of age . . 
From C to 8 weeks of age . . 
From 8 to 10 weeks of age . 
From 10 to 12 weeks of age 



Per dnv 


per 100 




lbs. live 


weight 




Digestible 


Total 


ratio 


onide 


dicestible 




protein 


nutrients 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


1: 


0.30 


2.49 


7.3 


0.40 


2.85 


6.1 


0.50 


4.12 


7.2 


0G5 


3.35 


4.2 


1.00 


5.54 


4.5 


2.0 


10.10 


4.0 


2.2 


9.52 


3.3 


20 


8.50 


3.2 


l.G 


7.40 


3.6 


1.2 


6.28 


4.2 


1.0 


5.38 


4.4 


40 


18.35 


3.6 


4.1 


17.12 


3.2 


2.7 


11.28 


3.2 


1.7 


8.02 


3.7 


1.4 


7.00 


4.0 


0.9 


4 55 


4.1 



428 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



Table VI. The Feed-unit System 

Amount of diflerent feeds required to equal one feed unit 



Feed 



For dairy cows 
Concentrates 

Corn, wheat, rye, barley, hominy feed, dried brewers' 
grains, wheat middlings, oat shorts, peas, molasses beet 
pulp, dry matter in roots 

Cottonseed meal 

Oil meal, dried distillers' grains, gluten feed, soy beans . 

Wheat bran, oats, dried beet pulp, barley feed, malt 
sprouts 

Alfalfa meal, alfalfa molasses feeds 

Bay and Htraw 

Alfalfa hay, clover hay 

^li.xed hay, oat liay, oat and pea hay, barley and pea hay, 

red top hay 

Timotliy haj', prairie hay, sorghum hay 

Corn stover, stalks or fodder, marsh hay, cut straw .... 

Soiling crops, silage and other succulent feeds 

Green alfalfa 

Green corn, sorghum, clover, peas and oats, cannery refuse 

Alfalfa silage 

Corn silage, pea vine silage 

Wet brewers' grains 

Potatoes, skim milk, buttermilk 

Sugar beets 

Carrots 

Rutabagas 

Field beets, green rape 

Sugar beet leaves and tops, whey 

Turnips, mangels, fresh beet pulp 

The value of pasture is generally placed at 8 to 10 units 
per day, on the average, varying with kind and condi- 
tion. 

For pigs 

Indian corn, barley, wheat, oil cakes 

Rye, wheat l)ran 

Boiled potatoes 

Skim milk 

Wi 



Hiey 



For horses 
One lb. of Indian corn equals 1 lb. of oats or 1 lb. of dry 
matter in roots. 



Feed required t* 
equal 1 unit 



Average 



Lbs. 



1.0 
0.8 
0.0 

1.1 
1.2 



2.0 



1.0 
1.4 
4.0 
GO 
12.0 



Range 



Lbs. 



1.5- .'{.O 



2.5 
3.0 
4.0 

7.0 
8.0 
5.0 


2.0- 3.0 
2.5- 3.5 
3.5- 6.0 

GO- 8.0 
7.0-10.0 


6.0 
4.0 


5.0- 7.0 


G.O 




70 




8.0 

no 

100 


8.0-10.0 


12.0 




12.5 


10.0-15.0 



* The values for pigs and liorses are those given in the Danish valuation 
table and those for dairy cows the values as revised by Well for American 
feeding stufls, given in Wis. Cir. 37. 



APPENDIX 429 

Table VII. Armsby's Net Energy Values for Feeding Stuffs 

The following: iiot cncifiy values for tlic most important American feeds are 
taken from Aiinsln, I'ennsylvaiiia I'.nl. 112. 'I'iiese vahies were computed by him 
from the data in Appendix Tabic III of Fcrdti tuiil Frahnfj. For a full explana- 
tion and discussion of the Armshy net energy values and tiie feeding standards 
based thereon see Chapter Nil. 



Feeding stuflj 



Grains and seeds 

Barley 

Bean, navy 

Buckwheat 

Corn, dent 

Corn, flint 

Corn andeob uieid 

Cotton seed 

Cowpea 

Oats 

Pea, field 

Rye 

So\ bean 

Wheat 

By-products 

Buttermilk 

Brewers' giains, dried 

liiewers' jirains, wet 

Buckwheat br:iu 

Cottonseed hulls 

Cottonseed uieal, choice 

Cottonseed meal, prime 

Cow's milk . 

Distillers' grains, dried, from corn 
Distillers' grains, dried, from rye 

Gluten feed 

Gluten meal 

Hominy feed 

Linseed meal, new process 

Linseed meal, old process 

Malt sprouts 

Molasses, beet 

Molasses, cane, or blackstrap . . . . 
Rye bran 

Sugar-beet pulp, dried 

Sugar-beet pulp, wet 

Tankage, over <30 per cent protein. 

Wheat bran 

Wheat middlings, flour 

Wheat middlings, standard 

Hay and dry, coarse fodder 

Alfalfa hay, all analyses 

Clover hay, alsike 

Clover hay, red. all analyses 

Corn fodder, medium dry 

Corn stover, medium dry 

Cowpea hay. all analyses 

Millet hay, Hungarian 

Oat hay 

FJed top hay 

Soybean hay 

Timothy hay, all analyses 



Total dry 
mailer 



Lbs. 

90 7 
8u 
87 9 
8 VI .5 
87 8 
89.(3 

00 6 
88.4 
90.8 
90 8 
90 C, 
90 1 
89.8 



9 4 



•24 1 


88 8 


90 3 


92.5 


9'2 2 


13 (i 


9:!. 4 


92 8 


91 :{ 


90 9 


89 9 


9U 4 


90 9 


92 4 


74.7 


74 2 


88.0 


91 8 


9.3 


92 (i 


89.9 


89 3 


89 G 


91.4 


87 7 


87.1 


81,7 


81.0 


90.3 


85.7 


88.0 


90.2 


91 4 


88.4 



Digestible 



Crude 
protein 



Lbs. 

90 

18.8 

8 1 
7.5 
7.7 
6.1 

13.3 
19.4 

9 7 
19,0 

9 9 

30.7 

9 2 



3.4 


21 5 


4 


10 5 


3 


37.0 


33 4 


3 3 


22 4 


13 6 


21 6 


30 2 


7 


31 7 


30 2 


20.3 


1 1 


10 


12 2 


4.6 


0.5 


58 7 


12 5 


15 7 


13.4 


10,6 


7.9 


7 6 


3.0 


2 1 


13 1 


5.0 


4.5 


4 6 


11.7 


3.0 



True 
protein 



Lbs. 

8.3 

10 4 

7.2 
7 

7 2 
5.7 

11 9 
10 9 

8.7 
16.6 

9.0 
27 3 

8 1 



3.4 

20 2 

4.4 

9.1 

i 

35 4 

32 
3.3 
18.3 
11.1 
20 1 
28.1 

6.5 
30 9 
28.5 
12 5 
00 
0,0 
10.5 

0.7 
0.5 
55.6 
10 8 
14.0 
12.0 



7.1 
5.3 
4.9 
2.3 
1.6 

9 2 
3.9 
39 
39 
&.8 
2 2 



Net 
energy 
value 



Therms 

89.94 
73.29 
59,73 
89.16 
87.50 
75.80 

78.33 
79.46 
67.56 
78 72 
93.71 
81.29 
91.82 



13.32 
53 38 
14.53 
30.59 
9.92 
93.46 

90.00 
29 01 
85,08 
56 01 
80.72 
84.15 

81.31 
85 12 
88 91 
72 72 
57,10 
55.38 
79.35 

75.87 
8.99 
93.04 
53 00 
75 02 
59.10 



34.23 
34 42 
38 68 
43 94 
31.62 

37 59 
46.96 
32 25 
5 I 22 
4'i;53 
43.02 



4.30 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABIUDGED 



T.vm.K \'II. Ar.\isi!y's Net E.nergy Values for Feeding .Stlffs- 



-continued. 



Feed i II j; :>(uns 



at raw 

Barlev , 

Oat 

K\ e 

Wheat 

F resit i/ri-fii rtniiihnur 

Alfalfa, ill bloom 

Bliiegrass, Keiitiiiky. lie.'ulcd < 
Corn fodder, dent all analv.ses 
Corn fodder, flint, all anal\.ses 

Oat fodder 

Kaiie 

Sweet sorstuim fodder 

Timothy, in bloom 

RhiiIk 

Beet, common 

Beet, sugar 

Carrot 

Mansel 



Rutabasa 

Turnips 

SUape 

Clover 

Corn, well matured. 
Cow peas 



reient analyses 





Digestible 


Total drv 




laalter 


fnido I True 




]irotein 


protein 


J.bs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


85.8 


0.9 


0.0 


88..-. 


- 1.0 


0.8 


92.9 


0.7 


0.5 


yi.o 


0.7 


0.3 


2."). 9 


3.3 


1.8 


:i(i.4 


2.8 


2.2 


2:i.l 


1.0 I 0.8 1 


20.7 


1 


0.8 


2r>.l 


2.3 


2.0 


l(i 7 


2.6 


1.7 


24.9 


7 


0.4 


32 1 


1.3 


0.8 


ir?.o 


0.9 


0.1 


16.4 


12 


0.4 


11.7 


9 


0.5 


9.4 


O.rt 


0.1 


10 9 


1 


0.3 


9.5 


1.0 


0.4 


27 8 


1 3 0.8 


26.3 


1.1 0.6 


22.0 


1.8 


1.1 ! 



Net 

energy 
value 



Therms 
36.01 
34.81 
17.511 



11.50 
17.77 
]4.(;o 
13.53 
14.06 
13.07 
15.37 
18.89 

7.84 
11.20 
9.21 
5.68 
8.46 
6.16 

7 26 
15.90 
I 1 05 



T.\m,E VTTT. Armshy FF.Enixr, ST\Nr».\Rns for F.\rm Anim.m.s 

The Armsby Feeding Standards, as recently i»resented liy him in The yutrition 
of Farm Animals, are as foHows. Tlie standards for dairy cows are given on 
pa^e 100. 

Mainfcvavce requh'ouenta, per head clailji. 





Ca 


ttle 


Horses 




T.'ve 










weiglit 


Digestible ]>rotein 


Net energy 


Digestible protein 1 Net energy 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


TIier-Tis 


Lbs. 


Tlier:ns 




150 


0.08 


1.69 


0.08 


l.Ki 




250 


0.13 


2.38 


0.13 


1.63 




500 


0.25 


3 78 


0.25 


2.58 




750 


0.38 


495 


0.38 


3.39 




1000 


0.50 


6.00 


0.50 


4.10 




1250 


0.63 


6.96 


0.63 


4.76 




1500 


0.75 


7.86 


0.75 


5.37 





Live 


Sh 


pep 


Swine 


weight 


Digestible protein 


Net energy 


Digestible protein 


Net energy 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Therms 


Lbs. 


Therms 


20 


Oil 


0.27 


010 


0.43 


40 


022 


43 


0.019 


0.68 


60 


0.033 


56 


0.029 


89 


80 


014 


0.68 


0.038 


1 08 


100 


0.055 


0.79 


0048 


1 25 


120 


0.066 


89 


0.058 


1.41 


140 


0.077 


99 


0.067 


1 .56 


160 


0.088 


1.09 


0077 


1 71 


180 


0.099 


1.17 


O.0R6 


1 85 


200 


0.110 


1.25 


0.096 


1.99 



APPENDIX 



431 



Table VIII. Armsby Feeding Sta.nuaru.s for Farm Animals — continued 
Ixcquircmcuts for growth, iiicludiiKj maintenance, per head daily. 

(I) Vutllc 





B 


eef bleeds 






Dairy breeds 


Ai?e 


l..ive 


Dige.stiljle 


Net 


Live 


Digestible 


Net 




weiglit 


proteiti 


energy 


weiglit 


liroteiii 


energy 


Moutlus 


T.b.s. 


Lbs. 


Therms 


J.bs. 


Lbs. 


Therms 


1 


i:ir> 


0.70 


:).7 


100 


0.40 


3.1 


') 


175 


0.85 


4.2 


135 


0.4 5 


3.4 


■.i 


2(10 


0.90 


4.2 


l(i5 


0.55 


3.G 


G 


:i50 


1.15 


5.0 


275 


0.70 


4.1 


9 


4 50 


1.25 


5.7 


325 


0.75 


4.4 


12 


550 


1.40 


6.5 


400 


80 


5.1 


Iri 


750 


1.40 


8.2 


550 


0.85 


G.4 


24 


i)()0 


!.:!() 


9.3 


700 


0.85 


7.G 


oO 


10()() 


l..'JU 


9.9 


800 


0.85 


8.2 



(2) Hheep 







Wool breeds 






Mutton breed 


s 


Age 


Live 


Digestible 


Net 


Ijve 


Digestible 


Net 




■weight 


jiroteiii 


energy 


weight 


jirotein 


energy 


Months 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Theniis 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Therms 


3 


37 


0.13 


0.78 


40 


0.22 


0.84 


G 


G5 


0.18 


95 


72 


o.:!0 


1 [)■:, 


<J 


82 


0.17 


LOG 


98 


0.28 


1.22 


12 


t»U 


15 


1 12 


115 


25 


1.30 


18 


100 


0.12 


1.1 9 


150 


0.22 


1.64 



(.?) Sicine 



Age 


Live weight 


Digestible protein 


Net energy 


Months 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Therms 


1 


15 


0.10 


0.65 


2 


30 


0.20 


1.00 


3 


52 


0.30 


1.38 


6 


118 


0.40 


2.28 


9 


183 


0.50 


3.0G 


12 


250 


0.55 


3.80 



Fattening all species of animals with no considerahle growth. Daily 
in addition to the maintenance requirement. 



1 Per pound of increase in live weight 1 


Digestible 

protein 

I>er 1000 lbs. 

live weight 




Digestible 
protein 


Net 
energy 


In early stages 


Lbs. 
15 


Therms 
2.50] 
4.00 i- 
3.25J 


Lbs. 


In late stages 

Average for entire fattening period 


0.05 
0.10 


0.25-0.75 


War/: horses, daily per 1000 Ihs. live weight. 




Digestible 
protein 


Net 
energy 


Full work — 8 hours per dav 


Lbs. 

2.0 

1.4 

1.0 


Therms 
18 2 


Half work — 4 hours per dav 


11 1 


One fourth work — 2 hours per dav 


7.6 









432 



FEEDS AND FEEDING, ABRIDGED 



Table IX. Weight of Various Concentrates 

la ci)iii|)uting rations for farm animals it is desirable to know the weight per 
ijuaiL, or tlie Imlk, of tlie dill'erent coiKi'Mtiatcs. The following table, compiled 
from Mussuvliiisttts liullctin 136 !)y Smitli and Perkins, Louisia^ut Bulletin 114 
by Halligan, and Indiana Bulletin Hit by Jones, Ilawortii, Cutler, and Summers 
is therefore presented. 



Feeding slulis 



Whole corn 

Corn meal 

Corn-and-cob meal 

Hominy feed 

Gluten feed 

Gluten meal 

Germ oil meal 

Corn bran 

Wheat 

Wlieat, ground 

Flour wheat middlin rs 

Standard wheat mid 

dlings 

Wheat bran 

Wheat feed (shorts 

and bran) 

Wheat screenings . . . 

Kye 

Pvye meal 

Rye middlings 

Kye bran 

Rye feed (shorts and 

bran ) 

Oats 

Oatmeal 

Oats, ground 

Oat feed 

Oat middlings 

Oat hulls 

Barley 

Barley meal 

!\Ialt sprouts 

Brewers' grains, 
dried 



One 
quart 
weighs 



Lbs. 

1 7 
1 5 
1 4 
1 1 

1.:; 
1.7 
14 

0.5 
1 !) 
1.7 
1.2 

O.S 
.") 

0.6 
1.0 
1.7 
1.5 
1.6 

0.8 

1.3 
1.0 
1.7 

0.7 
0.8 

1.5 
0.4 
1.5 
1.1 
0.6 

0.6 



One 
pouud 
meas- 
ures 

Qt.s. 

00 
0.7 
0.7 
0.!) 
O.S 
0.6 
0.7 

2.0 
0.5 
0.6 

o.s 
i.;j 

2.0 

1.7 
1.0 
0.6 
0.7 
0.6 

1.3 

0.8 
1.0 
0.6 
1.4 
1.3 

0.7 
2.5 

0.7 
0.0 

1.7 

1.7 



Feeding stu.i 



Millet, fo.Ktail 

Rice polish 

Rice bran 

Buckwheat 

Buckwheat Hour . . 
Buckwheat mid- 
dlings 

Buckwheat bran . . . 
Buckwheat hulls . . 

Cotton seed 

Cottonseed meal . . 
Cottonseed hulls . . 
Flaxseed 

Linseed meal, old 
process 

Linseed meal, new 
process 

Fla.K feed 

Fla.K screenings . . . 

Beans, navy 

Cowpeas 

Peas, field 

Soybeans 

Cocoanut meal .... 
Cocoanut cake .... 
Sunflower seed .... 

Beet pulp, dried . . . 
Distillers' grains, 

dried 

]\Iolasses, cane, or 

blackstrap 

'Molasses feed 

Alfalfa meal 



One 

quart 
weiglis 



Lbs. 

1.6 
1.2 

0.8 
1.4 
1.6 

0.0 

0.6 
5 
0.8 
1.5 
3 
It) 



1.1 



One 
pound 
meas- 
ures 



Qts. 

0.6 
0.8 
1.3 
0.7 
0.6 

1.1 

17 
2.0 
1.3 
0.7 
3.3 
0.6 



0.0 



09 


1.1 


0.8 


1.3 


1 1 


0.0 


1.7 


0.6 


1.7 


06 


2.1 


0.5 


1.8 


0.6 


1.5 


0.7 


1.3 


0.8 


1.5 


0.7 


06 


1.7 


0.6 


1.7 


3 


0.3 


0.8 


1.3 


0.6 


1.7 



INDEX 



The References are to Pages 



Absorption of nutrients, 29-31 
Air required by farm animals, 07 
Alfalfa, 180-5 
Alfalfa feed, 184 
Alfalfa hay, 181-3 

for calves, 284; cows, 272 4; ewes, 
327; horses, 244-5; pigs, 375; 
])Oultry, 402 ; sheep, 342 ; steers, 
314 
Alfalfa meal, 184 

for cows, 274; horses, 245; sheep, 320 
Alfalfa pasture, 183 

for cows, 274; horses. 2 40; i)ijs, 370; 
sheep, 345 
Alfalfa silage, 184, 204 
Alfalfa soilage, 184. 211 
Alimentary canal, 20 
Alsike Clover, see Clover, alsike 
Amids, 10 

in corn crop, 15 

use by animals, 54 
Amino acids, 10, 30 

absorption of, from intestine, 30 
Amylase, 25 
Anabolism, 28 
Animal, as a machine, 78 

composition of, 18 
Animal food for i)Oultry, 381 
Animals and ])lants comi)ared, 18 
Apples and Apple pomace, 198 
Api)le pomace silage, 205 
Artichokes, 196 
Ash in corn crop at different stases, 14 

in feeds, how determined, 12 

see Mineral matter 
Ashes, wood, for farm animals, 57, 352 
Available energy, 41 

Baby beef, 293, 305 
Bacon i)roduction, 359 
Barlev, 128-30 

for cows, 269; horses, 239; pigs, 362, 
poultry, 397; sheep, 339; steers, 
310. 

see Cereals 
Barley by-products, 130 1 
Barley feed, 131 

Barley hay, pasture, and soilage, 172 
Barley straw, 176 
Beans, field, 145 
Beans, horse, see Horse bean 
Beans, velvet, see Velvet bean 
Bean straw, 176 
Beef calves, see Calves, beef 
Beef cattle, see Steers 

raising, 300-4 
Beef cows, see Cows, beef 
Beet, see Mangels and Sugar Beets 
Beet leaves and toiis, 194, 205 
Beet pulp, dried, 150 

for cows, 269; horses, 239; sheep, 339 
Beet pulp, molasses, 151 
Beet i)ulp, wet, 150 

for cows, 279; sheep, 332, 345; 
steers, 311 
Beet pulp silage, 150, 205 
Beggar weed, 192 
Bermuda grass, 172 
Bermuda hay for horses, 242 
Bile, 25 

Bloat, in caitle, 24, 183, 186 
in sheep, 183 



Blood, circulation of, 28 

Blood meal, or dried blood, 149 

for calves, 284; horses, 241 
illuegrass, Kentucky, 168 
Bhiegrass pasture vs. riipe for lambs, 346 
Bluegrass hay for sheep, 342 
Boar, feed and care of, 356 
Bone ash for farm animals, 57, 67 
Bone, green cut, for poultry, 399 
Bone meal, 150 

for pigs, 352; poultry, 381 
Bran, see Wheat bran, Rice bran, etc. 
Bread, for poultry, 398 
Brewers' grains, dried, 130 

for cows, 270; horses 240; poultry, 
400; sheep, 340; steers, 313 
Brewers' grains, wet, 130 
Brome grass, 171 
Broine hay for horses, 242 
Buckwheat and by-products, 137 

for poultry, 398, 400 
Bull, beef, feed and care of, 301 
Bull, dairy, feed and care of. 288 
Butter, ett'ects of feeds on, 255 

yellow color, cause of, 258 
Buttermilk, 147 

for calves, 286; pigs, 364; poultry, 399 



Cabbage, 198 

for i)oultry, 401 
Cacti, 199 
Caecum, 21, 26 
C;ilcium, reciuired by animals, 54-57. CC-7 

see Lime 
Calorie, 40 
Calorimeter, 40 

respiration, 40 
Calves, beef, feed and care of, 301 4 
Calves, dairy, 280-7 

(For the value of the various 
feeds for calves, see Corn, Oats, 
etc.) 

birth weights, 285 

calf meals for, 286 

concentrates for, 283 

feeding , minimum amount of milk, 2S6 

gains made bv, 285 

hay for, 284 

raising on skim milk, 280-5 

raising on skim milk substitutes, 286-7 

salt for, 285 

scours, 287 

succulent feeds for, 284 

water for, 285 
Capillaries, 28 
Carbohydrates, 8, 37 

a source of muscular energy. 77 

determination in feeding stuffs. 13 

digestion and absorption of, 29 

effect on digestibility of otlier nutri- 
ents, 47 

energy lost in digesting, 41-3 
Carbonaceous feed, 38 
Carbon dioxid, 6 

danger from, in silo filling, 207 
Carbonic acid gas, see Carbon dioxid 
Carrots. 195 

for horses, 246 
Cassava. 197 
Castor bean, 201 
Catabolism, 28 



433 



4U 



INDEX 



Cattle, see Steers, Beef production, Cows 
Cellulose, 8 

digrestion of. 24, 30 
Cereal hay and pasture, 172 
Cereal hay for horses, 242 
Cereal i)asture, 172 

for pigs, 373; sheep, 346 
Cereals, 117-37 

for silage and soilage, 172 
Chaflf from the cereals, 17C 
Challing forage, 40 

for horses, 225 
Cliarcoul for i)igs, 352; for poultry, 382 
Chickens, see Poultry 
Chufas, 197 
Chvle. 29 
Clover, 185-9 

alsike, 187 

bloat from, how prevented, 186 

bur, 189 

crimson, 188 

Japan, see Lespedeza 

mammoth, 187 

red, 185-7 

for pasture, soilage and silage, 186 

sweet, 187 

white, 187 
Clover hay, red, 186 

for calves, 284; cows, 274; ewes, 327; 
horses, 244; pigs, 374; poulti'y, 
402; sheep, 342; steers, 314 

sweet, 187 

for sheep, 342; steers, 314 
Clover pasture, for pigs, 371; jioultry, 402; 

sheep, 345 
Cocoanut meal or cake, 143 

for cows, 2 72 
Cocoa shells, 153 
Coefficients of digestibility, 34-6; Appendix 

Table II 
Colts, see Foals 
Concentrates, 14 

feeding animals exclusively on, 60 

proper amount to feed stock, 88, 112; 
dairy cows, 259, 261; horses, 224, 
228; pigs, 359, 369; sheep, 330-2; 
steers, 295 
Cooking feed, 46 

for pigs, 350: horses, 226 
Corn, Indian, 11721 

by-products of, 120 2 

changes in, during ripening, 14 6 

composition of, 120 

effects of thick planting on, 158 

feeding exclusively to pigs, 71 3 

for cows, 267-9; horses, 237-9; pigs, 
361-2; poultry, 396; sheep, 336-8; 
steers, 30810 

nutrients in ears and stover, 158 

races of, 118 

shrinkage of ear corn, 119 

soft, 119 

see Corn crop 
Corn-andcol) meal, 120; see Corn, Indian 
Corn bran, 122 
Corn chop, see Corn meal 
Corn cobs, weight and composition of, 120 
Corn feed-meal, 120 
Corn fodder, 157. 160 

for cows, 275; horses, 242; sheep, 
342: steers, 314 

shredding, 103 
Corn fodder or stover silage, 161 
Corn gluten feed, see Gluten feed 
Corn meal, 119 
Corn silage, see Silage, corn 
Corn soilage, 163 
Cornstalk disease, 201 



Corn stover, 157, 163 

for cows, 275; horses, 242; sheep, 342; 
steers. 314 

shredded. 163 
Corn stover silage, 161 
I'oriectives for pigs, 352 
Cotton seed, 137 
Cottonseed cake. 138 

cold-pressed, 139 
Cottonseed hulls, 140 

for cows, 276; steers, 316 
Cottonseed meal, 138-40 

for beef cows, 301; dairy cows, 270; 
horses, 241; pigs, 1:!"9, 3(i8 ; poul- 
try, 400; sheeii, 340; steers, 312, 
317 
Cowpea, 144, 189 

for horses, 241; pigs, 368; poultry, 
400; steers, 313 
Cowpea hay, 189 

for cows, 275; sheep, 342; steers, 314 
Cowi)ea pasture, 189 

for pigs, 373; sheep, 346 
Cowpea silage, 189 
Cows, beef, feed and care of, 300 
Cows, dairy, 247-79 

(For the value of various feeds 
for cows, see Corn, Clover hay, 
etc.) 

advanced registry, 251 

as producers of human food, 247 

calculating rations for, 107-11, 200 

care before and after calving, 203 4 

comfort, importance of, 262 

comi)osition of milk of various breeds, 
252 

concentrate allowance for, 259-60 

cost of keep, 264-5 

dairy vs. beef type, 247-9 

dehorning, 258 

drying off, 263 

effects of advancing lactation, 253 ; age, 
253; drought, 256; exercise, 256; 
feed on richness and yield of milk, 
254-6; temi)erature, 256; turning 
to pasture, 256 

feed and care of, 247-66 

feeding as individuals, 260 

feeding concentrates on pasture, 261 

feeds for, 267-79 

feeds required by. for one year, 264 

frequency of feeding, 263 

freshening in fall vs. spring, 264 

gestation iteriod, 264 

good and poor producers, 249-50 

grooming, 256 

herd records, 250-2 

kindness in care of. 257 

liberal and meager feeding, 255-6 

milk, see Milk, cow's 

milking machines, 257 

milking three times daily, 258 

official tests, 251 

order of feeding, 263 

palatable feed, imjiortance of, 262 

pasture, sujtpiementing short. 261 

l^reparation of feed for. 263 

ration for. should be well balanced, 261 

regularity in care of, 257 

rest, importance of, 263 

salt for, 263 

shelter for, 262 

substituting legume hay for concen- 
trates, 272-4 

water for, 262 
Cow-testing associations, 251 
Crimson clover, see Clover, crimson 
Crude protein, see Protein, crude 



INDEX 



4:35 



Cud, chewing the, 21 

Gutting hay and straw, see Chaffing 

Dairy by-products, 146-8 
Dairy cows, see Cow.s, dairy 
Diastase. 130 
Digestibility, 34 8 

coefficients of, 34-6, Appendix Table II 

depression of, 47 

factors influencing, 45-8 

nietliod of dftcrniiniiig, 34 

of food by different aiiiinnls, 4A ; by 
poultry, 3 SO 
Digestible nutrient, 20 
Digestible nutrients in feeding 

stuffs, 36 8; Appendix Table III 
Digestion, 19 27, 29 31 

Digestion coefficients, 36; Appendix Table II 
Digestive tract of farm animals, 20 
Distillers' grains, dried, ir)2 

for cows, 271; horses, 241; sheep, 340; 
steers, 313 
Distillery sloji, 153 

Dried beet pulp, see Beet i)ulp, dried 
Dried blood, see Blood meal 
Dried brewers' grains, see Brewers' grains, 

dried 
Dried distillers' grains, see Distillers' grains, 

dried 
Dried fish, see Fish meal 
Ducks, 393 
Durra. 135 

Economy in feeding live stock, 10615 
Egg, structure and composition of, 386 
Emmer, 131 

for cows. 269; pigs, 363; sheep, 339; 
l.oultry, 398; steers, 311 
Energy, 38 44 

available and net, 41 
muscular, production of, 77 
net. 41 

in feeding stuflfs, 42 
required for fattening, 70; growth, 64; 
maintenance, 51: milk production, 
81; work. 79, 224 5 
of feeds, losses of. 42-4, 222 
see Work 
Energy values of feeds, Armsbv's, 92, Ai^pen- 

dix Table VII 
Enzymes, 20 
Erepsin, 25 
Ergot, 200 

Ether extract, see Fat 
Ewes, breeding, feed and care of. 32G 8 
Exercise for farm annuals. <i- ; sec also 
Dairy cows. Horses, etc. 

Farm animals, calculating rations forj 
86 115 

composition of bodies of, 18 

relative economy of, 70, 247 

see Live stock 
Fat, 9 

digestion and absorption of. 29 

how determined in feeds, 13 

origin in body, 69 

wool, 82 
Fattening, 68-75 

composition of increase during, 68 

factors influencing, 70 

object of, 68 

ration for, 69 
Feces, 32 
Peed, cooking, for farm animals, 46 

effects on butter fat. 254-6 

influence on body of pig, 71-3 



Feed, continued 

preparation for farm animals, 45-7, see 
also Horses. Cows, etc. 

regulation of sale. 154 

returns from, by various farm animals, 
70 

soaking. 46 
Feeding standards, 84-105 

Armsby's, 93 5; Appendix Table VII 

Bull Emmet for lambs, 93 

Eckles' for dairy cows, 100 

Haccker's for dairy cows, 97-8 

Kellner's. 92 

Morrison's, 101-4; Ai)pendix Table \' 

Savage's, for dairy cows, 99-100 

Wolff Lehmann, 84-5, 90-2; Apjiendix 
Table IV 

WoUHumphrev, 98 
Feeding stuffs, 117211 

composition, 814; Appendix Table I 

control, 154 

digestilde nutrients in, 36 ; Apjiendix 
Table III 

fertilizing constituents in. 214 6; A)) 
pendix Table III 

guide in purchasing. 155 

market prices not guide to value of, 106 

mineral matter in, 12, 55-7, 66 7 

mixed or i>ro]>rietary, 153 

selecting, for economical rations, lOd 11 

suitabilty of, considering in foruiulatiiig 
rations, 86 

variations in comjiosition of, 44 

see Feed, also Feeding stuffs 
Feed units. 95 

Fertility, buying, in purchased feeds. 215 
Fertility, selling, in croi)S. 216 
Fertilizing constituents in feeding stuffs, 214; 

Appendix Table III 
Fertilizing value of feeds, recovered in 

manure, 213 
Feterita, 135, 136 

for pigs, 364 
Feterita fodder, 165 
Fiber, 13 

digestion of, 24 

how determined in feeds, 13 

loss of energy in digesting, 41-3 
Field bean, see Bean, field 
Field pea, see Pea. field 
Fish and fish scrap for poultrv, 399 
Fish meal. 149 

Fl.ix seed and byproducts, 141-2 
Flax straw, 176 
Flour, manufacture of, 124 

red dog, 126 
Foals, cost of raising, 234 
feed and care of, 232-4 
Fodder corn, see Corn fodder and Corn 

forage 
Food, see Feeds, also Feeding stuffs 
Forage, coarse, see Roughage 

effect of curing and ensiling, 47 
Forage poisoning, 200 
Foot-ton and footpound, 221 
Fowls, see Poultry 
Fruit, 198 

for horses, 246 
Fuel value of feed, see Energy 

Gastric .luice, 22 
Germ oil meal, 122 

for cows, 270 
Geese. 394 

Gestation period, see Cow, Ewe, etc. 
Glucose, 8 

absorption of, 29 

manufactured from corn, 120 



436 



INDEX 



Oluton feed, 122 

for tows, 270; pigs, 369; |»oultry, 400; 
.siieej), 340; steers, 313 
(.iliiliii meal, 122 

for rows, 270: i)igs, 309 
(iluleii of wlicat. 124 
(ilycog<'n, 30, 77 
Goats, 335 
Grass, 167-75 

gains of steers on, 304 

nutrients at different stages, 167 

see Hay, also Pasture 
Grasses, mixed, 174 
Grcasewood, 198 
Green feed for ]>oiiltry, 401 2 
Green forage, digestibility of, 47 
Grinding gram for farm animals, 45 

See also Cows, Horses, etc. 
Grit for iioultry, 3S1 
Ground bone, see Bone meal 
Ground rock jiliospliate, see Phosphate, rock 
Growing animals, 63 8 

effect of checking growth of, 73 5 

food requirements for, 64 7 

roughing thru the winter, 112 

Hay, chaffing or cutting, see Chafling hay 

changes while curing, 177 

losses by stacking, 179 

making, 177-9 

measurement 179' 

shrinkage, 179 

vs. corn silage for dairy cows, 277 

see Grasses, also Lryumes 
Hay, alfalfa, effects of rain on, 177 
Heat, amount in coal, pure nutrients, and 
feeds, 41 

energy exjiended in body takes form 
of, 43, 51 

how it is i>roduced aiid regulated in 
body, 50 

lost in digestion, -11 

lost in warming water drunk, 58 

requirements for maintenance, 50 3 

see Energy 
Heating wati-r for cows, 262 ; farm ani- 
mals, 58 
Heifers, dairy, cost of rearing, 288 

feed and care of, 28 7-8 
Hens, see Poultry 
Hogs, see Pigs 
Hogging down corn, 362 
Hominy feed lor cows, 269; pigs, 304; 

poultry, 398 
Honeycomb, or second stomach, 21 
Horse bean, for horses, 241 
Horse i)0wer, definition, ".-21 
Horses, 221 46 

(For the value of the various feeds 
for horses, see Corn, Oats, etc.) 

blanketing, 227 

calculating rations for, 103 4 

care of, hints on 226 

carriage, feed and care of, 229 

cost of raising, 234 

exercise for, 226 

factors influencing work done by, 221-5 

fattening, 229 

feeding and care of, 221-35 

feeds for, 236-46 

grade, effect on energy required for 
work by, 225 

grooming, 227 

measuring work performed by, 221 

nutrient requirements of, 222 5 

roughage, excess of in.iurious, 241 

saddle horse, feed and care of, 229 

salt for, 226 



Horses, rontinvrd 

speed influences energy re(|uired for 
work, 224 

slablis for. 226 7 

types of work <loiie by, 223 

watrriiig, 226 

wintering farm horses, 22 8 

work horse, feed and care of, 227 
Hungarian grass, see Millet 

Incubation of eggs, 388 

Intestinal secretion, 25 

Intestine, large, digestion in, 26 

Intestine, small, digestion in, 25 6 

Intestines, length and capacity of, 21 

Invertases. 25 

lion in blood, 50, 55; in i)hints, 5 

Japan clover, see Lesjiedeza 

Japanese cane, 174 

Johnson grass, 173 

Johnson grass hay for horses, 242 

Kafir, 135-6, 163 6 

for calves, 282 ; cows, 269 ; horses, 239, 
242; i)igs, 364; poultry. 398; 
sheep. 339; steers, 311 
Kafir fodder, 164 
Kafir silage, 165 

for dairy cows, 277; steers, 320 
Kafir stover, 165 

for beef cattle, 315 
Kale, 198 
Kaoliang, 135. 136 

for pigs, 364 
Kaoliang fodder and stover, 165 
Kidnevs, 32 
Kohlrabi, 198 

Lactase, 26 
Lacteals, 29 
Lambs, see Sheep 

fattening, 330-3 

feed and care of, 328-35 

liothou.se, 333 

spring, 334 

weight of, at birth, 328 

winter. 333 
L<>gumes for foraee, 180-92 

for silage, 204 

rich in protein and lime, 56, 180 - 
Legume hay, importance of, for cows, 272; 
horses, 244; iiigs, 374; iioultry, 
402; sheeji, 340; steers, 313 
Leguminous seeds, 142 3; 144-5 
Lespedeza, 192 
Light for farm animals, 62 
Lime, 55-7, 66 

required for growth, 66 

required for nuintc iKinte, 55-7 
Linsei'd meal or cake, 141 

for calves, 2><2 ; cows. 271; horses, 241; 
pigs, 368; iioultrv, 400; sheep, 
340; ste<'rs, ;!12 

old and new process, 141 
Lipase, 25 
Liver, 25 

Loco poisoning, 201 
Lymph and lymphatic system, 28 

Maintaining farm animals, 50 62 
Maintenance ration, see Ration, maintenance 
Maize, s<e Corn 
Malt, 130 
Maltase, 26 

]\Ialt sugar. 8, 26, 130 
Malt sprouts, l.TO 
for cows, 270 



INDEX 



437 



Mammoth clover, sec Clover, mammoth 
Mangels, 194 

dangerous to rams or wethers, 194 

for eows, 277; pigs, 374; pouHry, 401; 
sheep, 343 

see Roots 
Manure, 212 19 

care of. to prevent loss, 219 

composition and value, 217 

essential elements in, 1,12 

fertilizing (onstitueuts recovered in, 213 

losses in, 218 

value as a fertilizer, 212 
Mauurial value of feeds, 215 
Manvplits, 21 

Mare, hrood, feed and care of, 230-2 
Margin in fattening live stock, 291 
Marsh gas, or methane, 24, 32, 41 
Marsh hay, 174 

for sheep, 342 
Mastication, 21 

energy lost in, 41-3 
Meat for ijoultry, 398 
Meat, marbling of, 68 
Meat meal, see Tankage 
Meat scrap, 149 

for i)Oultry, 398 
Mdons, 198 
Metabolism, 27 

Middlings, see Wheat middlings. Oat mid- 
dlings, etc. 
Milch cows, see Cows 
Milk albumin for poultry, 399 
Milk, cows, 64, 146, 252 8 

color of, affected by feed, 258 

colostrum, 64 

composition of, 64, 252 

factors influencing, 252 8 

effects of rich on young animals, 14G 

fat, source of, in, 81 

flavor, factors influencing, 258 

for calves, 280, 286; foals, 232 

odors in, due to feed, 258 

yield, factors influencing, 253-8 

yield of great dairy cows, 252, 268 
iMilk," of different animals, 64 
Milk, production of, 80 1 

nutiieiits required for, 81 

secretion of, 80 
Milking machines, 257 
AliUet seed. 136 

for poultry, 398; steers, 311 
Millet hay, 171 2 

for horses, 242; lambs, 342 
Milo, 136 

for hor.ses, 239; pigs, 364; iioultry, 398; 
sheep, 339; steers, 311 
Milo fodder and stover, 165 
Mineral matter, 7, 12, 54, 66 

digestion of, 31 

effects on animals of lack of, 56, 66, 
71 3 

for colts, 234; cows, 81; pigs, 66, 
71-3; poultry, 380 

importance of, in food, 54 

in feeding stuffs, 12, 56 

required for growth, 66. 71-3 

required for maintenance, 54-7 

see Calcium and Pliosiiliorus 
Mixed feeds. 153 
Molasses, beet, 151 

for horses, 239; sheep, 339; steers, 312 
Molasses, cane, 152 

for horses, 239; steers, 311 
Molasses-beet pulp, see Beet pulp, molasses 
Molasses feeds, 152 

for horses, 239 
Alolassine naenl, 152 



Morri.son feeding standards. 101-4, 108-11, 

4 2.->-7 
Mules, 221 228 
Muscular energy, production of, 77 

Net energy, see Energy, net 
Nitrogen in feeds as a fertilizer, 215; Appen- 
dix Table III 
Nitrogen-free extract in feeds, how deter- 
mined, 13 
Nitrogenous compounds in ijlants, 9 
Nitrogenous feed, 38 
Nutrients. 19 

digestible, 20, 36 

distribution and use of absorbed, 31 

required by various animals, sec Horse, 
Cows, etc. 

total digestible, 37, 38 
Nutritive ratio, 37 

how calculated and expressed, 38 

narrow and wide, 37 

(^\t bv-product-s, 128 
Oats, 126 

clipped, 127 

for calves, 283; cows, 269; foals, 232, 
233; horses, 236 7; pigs, 363; 
poultry, 397; sheep, 339; steers, 
311 

sprouted, for poultry, 401 

see Cereals 
Oat straw, 176 

for horses, 243; sheep, 342; steers, 318 
Oil cake, see Linseed meal or cake 
Oils, see Fat 
Orchard grass, 171 
Oyster shells for i)oultry, 381 

Palatability, 26, 88 

Pancreas and pancreatic juice, 25 

Parsni))S, 195 

Pasturage vs. soilage for cows, 209 

Pastuie, abuse of, 175 

for beef cattle, 304 5; horses, 246; 
pigs, 369-73 ; poultry, 402 ; sheep, 
3J5 
Paunch, 21, 24 
Pea cannery refuse, 189, 204 
Pe:inut and bv-prodiicts. 143 
Peanuts for i')igs, 143, 368, 373 
Pea, field, 144, 189 

for horses, 241; pigs, 368, 372; poultry, 
400; sheep, 340 
Peavine silage, 204 

fattening sheep on, 345 
Pentosans, 8 
Pentose. 13 
Pepsin, 23 
Peptones, 23 

Phosphate, ground rock, for farm ani- 
mals, 57, 67 
Phosphoric acid in feeds as a fertilizer, 215; 

Aiipendix Table III 
Phosphorus, eflect of low supply, 56, 66 
feeds low in. and rich in, 56 
in bran, 124 

required for maintenance, 55 
re(iuired for growth, 6() 
Pigs, 347-76 

(For value of various feeds for 
pigs see Corn, Clover hay, etc.) 
bacon production. 350 
birth weight of. 357 
body of. coiiiposition, 19 
breed tests, 354 
digestibility of food by, 48 
dressed carcass, per cent yielded by, 34'i 
exercise for, 352 
fattening, S%9 



438 



INDEX 



Pigs, continurd 

feed eaten daily, 347 

feeds for, 361 76 

feeding corn i-xclusively, 71 3 

following steers, 299 

gains from birth to maturity, 347 

ground bone for, 352 

hogging down corn, 362 

hogging down ripe grain, 373 

intluence of feed on body, 71-3 

mineral matter, for, 71 3, 352 

number in litter, 356 

nutrient requirements of, 348 

preparation of feed for, 349 50 

returns from, compared with other farm 

animals. 70, 347 
salt required by, 352 
self feeders for. 351 
shelter for, 352 
sow, see Sows 
strength of bones aflfected by feed, 66, 

71 3 
stubble fields, gleaning. 373 
tuberculosis, thru dairy by products, 147 
types of, 354 
water required by, 350 
Plants, composition, at different stages o 
maturity, 14 C. 44 
elements present in, 5 
food of, 5 7 
how they grow. 511 
support animal life. 11 
Plant substances, how grouped, 11-3 
Poisonous j)lants, 200-1 
Pork. elTects of feeds on, 359 
Potash in feeds as a fertilizer, 215; Appen- 
dix Table III 
Potatoes. 195 

for cows, 278; horses, 246; pigs, 374 
Poultry. 377 402 

(For the value of different feeds 
for poultry see Corn, Wheat, etc.) 
animal fowl for, 381 
brooding, artificial. 390 
brooding chicks with hens, 389 
charcoal for, 382 
cockerels. 393 
condiments for, 382 
digestibility of feeds by, 380 
digestive system of, 378 
ducks, 393 

eggs, structure and composition of, 386 
feeding chicks, 391-2 
feeding laying hens, 384 
feeding standards for, 380 
green feeds for, 383 
grit for, 381 

hatching eggs with hens, 389 
hints on feeding, 394 
incubation, 388 
mash for, 383 
mineral matter for, 380 
nutrient requirements of, 380 
oyster shells for, 381 
prei)aration of feed for, 383 
pullets, 392 

rations for laying hens. 384 
returns from, compared with other farm 

animals, 70 
salt for. 381 

saving eggs foi hatching, 388 
selecting the flock. 387 
shelter for, 382 
turkeys. 394 
types of fowls, 383 
water for. 381 
Prairie hay, 174 

for cows, 276; horses, 242; sheep, 342 



Preparation of feeds, 45-7 
Prickly pear, 199 
Proprietary feeds, 153 
Protein, 9 11 

amount in rations, adapting to loce! 

conditions. 111 
comi)lete and incomplete, 10, 66 
crude, 10 

how determined in feeds. 12 
■ digestion and absorjition of, 30 
fat formed from, 69 

required by cows, 81. 261; fattening 
cattle, 292 ; horses, '224 ; sheep, 
82; pigs, 348; jwillry, 380 
required for fattening, 69; growth, 64; 
maintenance, 53; milk production, 
81; wool production, 82 
Proteoses, 23, 30 
Protoplasm. i)lant, 7 
Prussic acid, plants carrying, 200 
Ptyalin, 22 
Pumpkins, 198 

Quarters for farm animals, see Shelter 
Quiet, importance of, for farm animals, 02 

Ram, feed and care of. 328 
Rape, dwarf Essex, 197 

for pigs, 346; sheep, 371 
Rations, 20 

balanced 20 

bulkiness of, importance of, 87 
calculating, for dairy cows, 98, 10711; 
steer, 90 2. 93 4; work horse. 103 4 
economical, for farm animals, 106 15 
factors affecting digestibility of. 44-9 
general hints on computing, 86-90 
maintenance, 50-62 

economical, 43. 52 
for various farm animals. Appendix 
Tables IV and V. see also Horse, 
Pig, etc. 
Red clover, see Clover, red 
Red dog flour, 126 

for pigs, 367 
Red top grass, 170 

Regularity, imj)ortance of, for farm animals, 
.j2 ; for dairy cows, 257 ; fattening 
cattle, 299; "horses, 227; poultry, 
395; sheep, 332 
Rennin, 23 

Respiration apparatus, 39 
Rice, 133 

for horses, 239; poultry, 398; steers, 
311 
Rice bran. 133 

Rice by in-oducts for jtigs. 369 
Rice hulls, dangerous to animals, 133 
Rice i)olish, 134 
Rice straw, 177 

Rock phosi)hate, see Phosiihate, rock 
Roots and tubers, 193-7 

costly comjiared with corn silage, 194 
for cows, 277-8; horses. 246; jiigs, 373; 
poultry, 401; sheep. 343; steers. 
320 
Roughages. 13 

losses of energy in digestion of, 43 
necessity of, for farm animals, 60 
Ruminants, 20 

digestion of, 24, 48 
Rutabagas. 194 

for cows, 278; horses, 246; i>oultry, 401 
Rve, 131 

for cows, 269; horses, 239; pigs, 363; 

poultry, 398 
see Cereal." 



INDEX 



439 



Rye hay, 172 
Rye pasture, 172 
Rye straw, 176 

Sagebrush, 198 

Saliva, action on food, 22 

Salt, common, 57 

for calves, 285; cows, 263; horses, 226; 
])igs, 352; jioultry, 381; sheci", 
325; steers, 299 
influence of, on digestibility, 48 
need of, by farm animals, 55, 57 
Saltbush, 198 
Salvage gr->ir, 153 

for poultry, 398 
Scarlet clover, see Crimson clover 
Scours in calves, 287 
Screenings, see Wheat screenings 
Self feeders for pigs, 351; poultry, 385; 

sheep, 326; steers, 297 
Shallu, 135, 165 
Sheep, 322 46 

(For the value of different feeds 
for sheei), see Corn, Clover hay, 
etc.) 
age, influence of, on gains, 324 
cost of gains by, 337 
danger from feeding mangels, 194, 343 
dipping, 331 

dressed carcass yielded by, 333 
exercise for, 324 
fattening, 330-3 

amount of concentrates for, 332 
different ages, 324 
length of feeding period, 331 
various methods of, 330-3 
feeding and care of, 322 35 
feed racks for, 326 
feeds for, 336-46 
flock, proper size of, 323 
gains of, 324, 331 
general problems in sheep husbandry, 

322 6 
gestation period, 328 
preparation of feed for, 325 
returns compared with other farm ani- 
mals, 70, 322 
salt for, 325 
self feeders for, 326 
shelter for, 324 
shrinkage in shipping, 333 
stomach worms, 330 
types of, 323 
water required by, 325 
wool production, sec Wool 
see Ewes, Lambs, and Ram 
Shelter, for cows, 262 ; farm animals, 53 ; 
horses, 226; jiigs, 352; poultry, 
382; sheep, 324, 328; steers, 297 
Shock corn, 162 

for steers, 309 
see Corn fodder 
Shorts, see Middlings, wheat 
Shredding corn forage, 163 
Silage, 202 9 

advantages of, 203 
alfalfa, 184, 204 
amount to feed, 205 
clover, 187, 204 
Silage, corn. 159 61, 204 

for beef cows, 301; dairy cows, 276; 
ewes, 327; horses, 246; pigs, 374; 
poultry, 401; .sheep, 343-5; steers, 
316 20 
vs. corn fodder. 160 
vs. hay for cows, 277 
vs. roots. 194 



Silage, crops suitable for, 205 
cured corn fodder for, 161 
digestibility of, 47 
mouldy, dangerous, 205 
l)reservation. manner of, 202 
sorghums for, 165 

southern vs. northern corn for, 161 
si)ace occupied by, 204 
summer, 206 

for cows, 261, 279 
weight of, 204 
Silo, 206-9 

capacity of, 208 

danger from carbonr dio.xide in filling, 

207 
filling, 206 
proper size of. 208 
requisites of a good, 207 
Skim milk, 146 

for colts, 232; calves, 280-5; pigs, 

364-6; poultry, 399 
money value, for pigs, 365 
Itasteurizing to prevent disease, 147 
substitutes for, in calf rearing. 286 7 
Smut, corn, 201 
Soaking feed, 46 

for horses, 226; pigs, 350 
Soilage, 209-11 

advantages and disadvantages of, 209 
crops for, 211 
for cows, 279 
Sorgho, see Sorghum, sweet 
Sorghum, sweet, 134, 136 

for cows, 269; pigs. 364; poultry, 398 
Sorghum fodder or hay, 163 5 

for horses, 242 ; sheep, 342 ; steers, 315 
Sorghum pasture, 165 
Sorghum silage, 165 

for cows, 277; sheep, 345; steers. 320 
Sorghum soilage, 165 
Sorghum stover, 165 

for steers, 315 
Sorghums, grain, 134 6 

for cows, 269; horses, 239; pigs, 364, 
poultry, 398; sheep, 339; steers. 
311 
Sows, feed and care of, 354 6 

see Pigs 
Soybeans, 142-3 

for cows, 271; horses, 241; pigs, 368; 
poultry, 400; sheep, 340; steers, 
313 
Soybean cake or meal, 143 

for cows. 272 
Soybean hay. 190 
Soybean jiasturc for pigs. 372 
Soybean silage, 190 
Spelt, see Emmer 
Squashes, 198 

Stallion, feed and care of, 234 
Starch, 4 

digested by ptyalin, 22 
l)roduction of, from corn, 120 
Starch values, Kellner's, 92 
Steers, 290-321 

(For the value of the various feeds 
for steers, see Corn, Corn silage, 
etc.) 
age, influence of on cost of gains, 67, 

292 
breed, value of in beef making. 296 
calculating rations for. 90 2, 93 4 
composition of, at different ages, 19 
composition of increase during fatten- 
ing, 68 
cost of fattening, 300 
degree of finish, influence on cost of 
gains, 294 



440 



INDEX 



Steers, continued 

early maturity of beef breeds. 296 
fatiening, length of feeding period, 294 
me I hods of. :30 4 7 
oil pasture, 304 5 
ou small amount of concen- 
trates, 29r> 
feed requirements of, 292 
feeds for. 30? :(21 
frequency of feeding, 299 
gains on grass, 304 
gams on dropi)iugs, by hogs, 299 
getting on feed, l99 
grain feeding ou pasture, 305 
growing, 303 

growth under advers.' conditions. 73 5 
hints on fattening, 299 
margin required in fattening. 291 
phases of beef jiroduction, 290 
l)igs following. 299 
preparation of feed for. 309 
preiiaring for shipment, 300 
quiet and regularity, importance of, 

for. 299 
returns from, comi)ared with other farm 

animals, 90 
salt for. 298 
solf feeder for. 297 
shelter for, 297 
shrinkage in shipping. 300 
summer vs. winter feeding, 304 
water required by. 298 
wintering growing. 303, 306 
Steers and pigs, gains of, 293 
Stock foods. 155 
Stomach, capacity of, 21 
digestion in, 22 
Stomachs of ruminants, 21, 22 
Stomach worms in sheep, 33U 
Stover, see Corn stover 
Straw, 176 

for cows, 276; horses, 225; sheep, 342; 
steers, 304. 315 
Succulent feeds, value of. 61 

for cows, 276 9; horses, 245 6; pigs, 
369 74; poultry, 4012; shcei>, 343- 
6; steers, 316 21 
Sucrase, 26 
Sudan grass, 173 
Sugar beet pulp, see Beet pulp 
Sugar beets, 194 

for cows, 277; pigs, 374; poultry, 401; 
sheep, 343 
Sugar cane, 174 

Sunflower seed and oil cake. 113 
Sunflower silaue. '. '" 
Sweet clover, see Clover, sweet 
Sweet potato. 197 
Sweet potatoes for pigs. 374 
Swine, see Pigs 



Tankage, 148 

for horses, 241; pigs, 367 
Temperature, body, of farm animals, 50 

see Heat 
Teosinte, 172 
Therm, 40 
Timothy hay, 169-70 

early and late cut, 169 

for cows, 275; horses, 242; sheep, 342; 
steers, 308, 313 
Trypsin. 25, 30 

Tuberculosis, spread by feeding infecti'd 
milk, 147 



Tubers, see Roots and tubers 
Turkeys, 394 
Turnips, 195 

for cows, 278; poultry, 401; sheep, 343 

Urea, 32 
Urine. 32 

fertilizing constituents voided in, 218 

heat carried off by, 41, 42 

Variety of feeds, importance of, 89 

Veal, feeding for, 303 

Velvet bean, 192 

Velvet bean pasture for pigs, 373 

Ventilation, see Air 

Vetch, hairy and common, 191 

Villi, 29, 30 

Vitamines. 58-60 

Waste of body, disposal of, 32 
Water requirements of animaU, 58; calves, 
285 ; cows, 262 ; horses, 226 ; pigs. 
350; poultry, 381; slieei), 325; 
steers, 298 
Water, evaporation of. carries heat from 
body, 51 
in feeds, how determined, 12 
in plants, 5 
warming for cows, 262 
warming for farm animals, 58 
Wet beet pulp, see Beet pulp, wet 
Wet brewers' grains, see Brewers' grains, 

wet 
Wethers, see Sheep and Lambs 
Wheat, 123 

by-products of, 124 6 
for cows, 269; horses. 239; pigs. 363; 
poultry. 396; sheep, 339; steers. 
310 
see Cereals 
Wheat bran. 124 

for calves, 283; cows, 269; horses, 239; 
pigs, 367; poultry, 400; sheep, 
340; steers. 313 
Wheat feed, 126 

for cows, 270 
Wheat hay and pasture, 172 
Wheat middlings. 125 

for cows, 270; horses, 240; pigs, 367; 
poultry, 400 
Wheat screenings. 126 

for poultry, 397; sheep. 339 
Wheat shorts, see Wheat middlings 
Wheat straw, 176 
Whev. 147 

for calves, 286; i)igs 366; poultry, 399 
Whole milk, see Milk, cow's 
Winter lambs, 333 
Wood ashes for farm animals, 57 
Wool, composition of, 8','. 
Wool production. 82 
Work, 77 9, 221 5 

factors influencing efficiency of, 79 

heat produced thru, 77 

internal, produces luat, 42, 51 

measurement of, 221 

nutritive requircnunts for, 77, 222-4 

of the horse. 221 5 

jiroduction of, 77 

relation of speed to, 224 

value of feeds for. 222 

see Energy and Horses 

Yolk in wool, 82 



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